Mini Dictionary of Psychology

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Psychology dictionary of common terms:

A

Abnormal Psychology: The study of psychological disorders and abnormal behaviors.

Absolute Threshold: The minimum stimulus intensity required for detection by an individual.

Abreaction: The expression and consequent release of a previously repressed emotion, achieved through reliving the experience that caused it.

Abstract Thinking: The ability to think about objects, principles, and ideas that are not physically present.

Accommodation (Cognitive): The process of altering one’s existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or experiences.

Achievement Motivation: A desire for significant accomplishment, mastering of skills, control, or high standards.

Acoustic Encoding: The process of remembering and understanding something learned by hearing.

Acquisition (Learning): The initial stage of learning when a response is first established.

Action Potential: A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

Active Listening: Fully concentrating on what is being said rather than just passively hearing the message of the speaker.

Actor-Observer Bias: The tendency to attribute one’s own actions to external causes while attributing other people’s behaviors to internal causes.

Adaptation (Psychological): The process of adjusting to new conditions.

Addiction: A compulsive need for and use of a habit-forming substance or behavior.

Adolescence: The transitional stage from childhood to adulthood that occurs from puberty to legal adulthood.

Adrenaline: A hormone released into the bloodstream in response to physical or mental stress.

Affect: A psychological term for an observable expression of emotion.

Affective Forecasting: Predicting how one will feel in the future after some event or decision.

Aggression: Any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.

Agreeableness: A personality trait that involves being compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others.

Agoraphobia: The fear of places and situations that might cause panic, helplessness, or embarrassment.

Alcohol Use Disorder: A medical condition characterized by an impaired ability to stop or control alcohol use despite adverse social, occupational, or health consequences.

Algorithm: A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

All-or-Nothing Thinking: Thinking in absolutes, like “always”, “never”, or “every”.

Altruism: The belief in or practice of disinterested and selfless concern for the well-being of others.

Ambivalent Attachment: A form of insecure attachment characterized by a child’s anxiety and uncertainty in the caregiver’s reliability and responsiveness.

Amnesia: The loss of memories, such as facts, information, and experiences.

Amygdala: A section of the brain that is responsible for detecting fear and preparing for emergency events.

Anal Stage: In Freudian psychoanalysis, the second stage of child development, where the focus of the libido is on controlling bladder and bowel movements.

Anchoring Bias: The common human tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered when making decisions.

Androgyny: The combination of masculine and feminine characteristics into an ambiguous form.

Anecdotal Evidence: Evidence based on personal accounts rather than facts or research.

Anger: A strong feeling of annoyance, displeasure, or hostility.

Anhedonia: The inability to feel pleasure in normally pleasurable activities.

Anima and Animus: Jungian archetypes representing the unconscious feminine side in men (anima) and the unconscious masculine side in women (animus).

Anorexia Nervosa: An eating disorder characterized by an abnormally low body weight, intense fear of gaining weight, and a distorted perception of body weight.

Anterograde Amnesia: The inability to form new memories following the onset of an injury or disease.

Antisocial Personality Disorder: A mental disorder in which a person consistently shows no regard for right and wrong and ignores the rights and feelings of others.

Anxiety: A feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease, typically about an imminent event or something with an uncertain outcome.

Anxiety Disorders: A group of mental disorders characterized by significant feelings of anxiety and fear.

Apathy: Lack of interest, enthusiasm, or concern.

Aphasia: A condition that robs you of the ability to communicate.

Apperception: The mental process by which a person makes sense of an idea by assimilating it to the body of ideas he or she already possesses.

Archetype: A very typical example of a certain person or thing in Jungian psychology, a collectively inherited unconscious idea, pattern of thought, or image universally present in individual psyches.

Arousal: A state of heightened physiological activity.

Art Therapy: A form of psychotherapy involving the encouragement of free self-expression through painting, drawing, or modeling.

Artificial Intelligence: The simulation of human intelligence in machines.

Assertiveness: The quality of being self-assured and confident without being aggressive.

Assimilation (Cognitive): The process of taking in and fully understanding information or ideas.

Association: A mental connection between concepts, events, or mental states that usually stems from specific experiences.

Attachment: A deep and enduring emotional bond that connects one person to another across time and space.

Attachment Theory: A psychological, evolutionary, and ethological theory concerning relationships between humans.

Attention: The behavioral and cognitive process of selectively concentrating on a discrete aspect of information, whether deemed subjective or objective, while ignoring other perceivable information.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A chronic condition including attention difficulty, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness.

Attentional Bias: The tendency of our perception to be affected by our recurring thoughts.

Attitude: A settled way of thinking or feeling about someone or something, typically one that is reflected in a person’s behavior.

Attribution: The process by which individuals explain the causes of behavior and events.

Attribution Theory: A social psychology theory which explains how people attribute causes to events and how this affects their thinking and behavior.

Auditory Learning: A learning style in which a person learns through listening.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): A developmental disorder that affects communication and behavior.

Autobiographical Memory: A memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual’s life, based on a combination of episodic (personal experiences and specific objects, people, and events experienced at particular time and place) and semantic (general knowledge and facts about the world) memory.

Automatic Processing: Unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information.

Automatic Thoughts: Thoughts that are spontaneous and not based on reflection, often used in cognitive therapy to identify irrational beliefs.

Autonomy: The right or condition of self-government, in psychology, autonomy refers to how a person’s identity is developed by making choices that are not influenced by external pressures.

Availability Heuristic: A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person’s mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision.

Avoidance Learning: A process by which an individual learns a behavior or response to avoid a stressful or unpleasant situation.

Avoidant Attachment: An attachment style characterized by difficulty in forming close relationships and reliance on self-sufficiency.

Avoidant Personality Disorder: A psychiatric condition characterized by a lifelong pattern of extreme social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and sensitivity to rejection.

Awareness: The state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns.

Axon: A long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, that typically conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron’s cell body.

Axiology: The philosophical study of value; in psychology, it relates to understanding the values and ethics of individuals.

Altruism: The belief in or practice of disinterested and selfless concern for the well-being of others.

Analytical Psychology: A branch of psychology founded by Carl Jung that focuses on the importance of the individual psyche and the personal quest for wholeness.

Anchoring: A cognitive bias that describes the common human tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered (the “anchor”) when making decisions.

Anecdotal Evidence: Non-scientific observations or studies, which do not provide proof but may assist research efforts.

Anger Management: Psychological strategies for controlling anger and dealing with situations that might provoke anger.

Anima and Animus: Jungian archetypes representing the unconscious feminine side in men (anima) and the unconscious masculine side in women (animus).

Anorexia Nervosa: An eating disorder characterized by an abnormally low body weight, intense fear of gaining weight, and a distorted perception of body weight.

Anterograde Amnesia: The inability to form new memories following the onset of an injury or disease.

Antisocial Personality Disorder: A mental disorder in which a person consistently shows no regard for right and wrong and ignores the rights and feelings of others.

Anxiety: A feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease, typically about an imminent event or something with an uncertain outcome.

Anxiety Disorders: A group of mental disorders characterized by significant feelings of anxiety and fear.

Apathy: Lack of interest, enthusiasm, or concern.

Aphasia: A condition that robs you of the ability to communicate.

Apperception: The mental process by which a person makes sense of an idea by assimilating it to the body of ideas he or she already possesses.

Archetype: A very typical example of a certain person or thing in Jungian psychology, a collectively inherited unconscious idea, pattern of thought, or image universally present in individual psyches.

Arousal: A state of heightened physiological activity.

Art Therapy: A form of psychotherapy involving the encouragement of free self-expression through painting, drawing, or modeling.

Artificial Intelligence: The simulation of human intelligence in machines.

Assertiveness: The quality of being self-assured and confident without being aggressive.

Assimilation (Cognitive): The process of taking in and fully understanding information or ideas.

Association: A mental connection between concepts, events, or mental states that usually stems from specific experiences.

Attachment: A deep and enduring emotional bond that connects one person to another across time and space.

Attachment Theory: A psychological, evolutionary, and ethological theory concerning relationships between humans.

Attention: The behavioral and cognitive process of selectively concentrating on a discrete aspect of information, whether deemed subjective or objective, while ignoring other perceivable information.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A chronic condition including attention difficulty, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness.

Attentional Bias: The tendency of our perception to be affected by our recurring thoughts.

B

D

Depersonalization Disorder: A condition where an individual experiences persistent feelings of being detached from their own body or mental processes.

Derealization Disorder: A state marked by feeling as though one’s surroundings are unreal or dreamlike.

Depression (Major Depressive Disorder): A debilitating mood disorder characterized by persistent sadness, loss of interest in activities, changes in sleep and appetite, and difficulty concentrating.

Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD): A childhood condition involving severe, recurrent temper outbursts and chronic irritability.

Dissociative Amnesia: Inability to recall important personal information, often related to a traumatic event.

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID): The presence of two or more distinct personality states accompanied by memory gaps and identity disruption.

Denial: Refusal to acknowledge the reality of a situation or information that causes anxiety.

Displacement: Redirecting unacceptable emotions or impulses towards a less threatening target.

Dissociation: A mental process where an individual disconnects from their thoughts, feelings, memories, or sense of self.

Devaluation: Attributing overly negative qualities to oneself or others.

Delayed Development: When a child does not reach developmental milestones at expected ages.

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD): A condition impacting motor skills, leading to difficulties with coordination and movement.

Developmental Psychology: The study of psychological changes and growth throughout the lifespan.

Dyslexia: A learning disorder that affects reading and language-related skills.

Defense Drive: Motivations related to protection and safety, often linked to anxiety or fear responses.

Delusion: A strongly held false belief that persists despite evidence to the contrary.

Dependency: Excessive reliance on another person for emotional or physical support.

Dopamine: A neurotransmitter playing crucial roles in reward, motivation, and movement.

Decatastrophizing: A cognitive restructuring technique helping individuals challenge exaggerated negative thoughts about a situation.

Desensitization (Systematic Desensitization): A behavioral therapy technique for reducing anxiety or fear responses through gradual exposure.

Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT): A therapy focused on developing skills in mindfulness, emotional regulation, distress tolerance, and interpersonal effectiveness.

Dream Analysis: The process of interpreting the symbolic meaning of dreams, often used in psychoanalysis.

E

Eclectic Approach: An approach to psychotherapy that draws on multiple theoretical perspectives and techniques.

Ego: In psychoanalytic theory, the part of the personality that mediates between the id’s impulses, the superego’s demands, and reality.

Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): A medical treatment for severe depression and other mental illnesses that involves passing an electric current through the brain to induce a controlled seizure.

Encoding: The process of converting sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory.

Endocrine System: The system of glands that produce and secrete hormones into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions.

Endorphins: Neurotransmitters that function as natural pain relievers and are associated with feelings of pleasure and euphoria.

Environmental Psychology: The study of the relationship between people and their physical surroundings, including the built environment and natural landscapes.

Episodic Memory: A type of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations, and experiences.

Equilibrium: In Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the state of balance between cognitive schemas and new information or experiences.

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: A theory proposed by Erik Erikson outlining eight stages of development, each associated with a specific psychosocial crisis or challenge.

Estrogen: A hormone primarily responsible for the development and regulation of the female reproductive system and secondary sexual characteristics.

Ethical Guidelines: Standards of conduct that researchers and mental health professionals are expected to follow to ensure the welfare and rights of participants and clients.

Ethnocentrism: The tendency to judge other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture, often resulting in a belief in the superiority of one’s own culture.

Eugenics: The study or belief in the possibility of improving the genetic quality of the human population through selective breeding or other interventions.

Evolutionary Psychology: A branch of psychology that seeks to explain psychological traits and behaviors in terms of their adaptive significance in human evolution.

Executive Function: Cognitive processes involved in goal-directed behavior, including planning, inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility.

Existentialism: A philosophical movement that emphasizes individual existence, freedom, and choice, often exploring themes of meaning, authenticity, and responsibility.

Extrinsic Motivation: Motivation that arises from external rewards or consequences rather than inherent satisfaction or interest in the activity itself.

Extroversion: A personality trait characterized by outgoingness, sociability, and a preference for social interaction and stimulation.

Extrapyramidal Symptoms (EPS): Side effects associated with certain antipsychotic medications, including involuntary movements such as tremors, dystonia, and tardive dyskinesia.

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR): A psychotherapy technique used primarily to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) that involves bilateral stimulation of the brain while recalling traumatic memories.

Emotion Regulation: The ability to monitor, evaluate, and modify one’s emotional reactions in order to achieve desired emotional states or responses.

Empathy: The ability to understand and share the feelings, thoughts, and perspectives of others.

Emulsion: A mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible (not forming a homogeneous mixture), such as oil and water.

Encoding Specificity Principle: The principle that memory retrieval is most effective when the conditions at the time of retrieval match the conditions present at the time of encoding.

Encephalitis: Inflammation of the brain, often caused by viral infections or autoimmune disorders.

Endogenous Depression: Depression that is believed to result from internal factors such as genetics, biochemical imbalances, or neurobiological abnormalities.

Enmeshment: A dysfunctional family dynamic characterized by blurred boundaries, excessive emotional involvement, and a lack of autonomy among family members.

Entropy: In psychology, the tendency of a system to move toward disorder or randomness over time.

Epigenetics: The study of heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve changes to the underlying DNA sequence, often influenced by environmental factors.

Equifinality: The principle that a given outcome can be reached by multiple paths or processes.

Eriksonian Identity Crisis: A stage of psychosocial development proposed by Erik Erikson, during which individuals struggle to form a coherent sense of identity.

Erotomania: A delusional disorder characterized by the belief that someone, usually of higher social status, is in love with the individual.

Escapism: The tendency to seek distraction or relief from unpleasant realities, often through activities such as daydreaming, fantasy, or substance use.

Esthetic: Pertaining to beauty, art, or the appreciation of sensory experiences.

Ethical Egoism: A moral theory asserting that individuals ought to act in their own self-interest, prioritizing their own needs and desires above those of others.

Ethnography: A qualitative research method involving the detailed observation and description of a particular culture or social group.

Etiology: The study of the causes or origins of a particular disorder, disease, or condition.

Euphoria: An intense feeling of happiness, excitement, or well-being, often accompanied by a sense of heightened energy or euphoric mood.

Exclusion Criteria: Specific characteristics or conditions that disqualify individuals from participating in a research study.

Experiential Learning: Learning that occurs through direct experience, hands-on activities, and reflection on those experiences.

Explicit Memory: Conscious, intentional memory that involves the conscious recall of information, facts, and events.

Exposure Therapy: A type of cognitive-behavioral therapy used to treat anxiety disorders, phobias, and PTSD by gradually exposing individuals to feared stimuli or situations in a controlled manner.

Extinction: In classical conditioning, the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Extraversion: A personality trait characterized by outgoingness, sociability, and a preference for social interaction and stimulation.

Eye Tracking: A research technique used to measure eye movements and gaze patterns, often employed in studies of attention, perception, and cognitive processing.

Echoic Memory: A sensory memory system that briefly retains auditory information, allowing individuals to recall sounds or words that were heard within the last few seconds.

Emotional Intelligence: The ability to recognize, understand, and manage one’s own emotions, as well as to perceive and influence the emotions of others.

Exogenous Depression: Depression that is believed to result from external factors such as life events, stressors, or trauma.

Equity Theory: A social psychological theory proposing that individuals compare their own input-output ratio to that of others in determining perceptions of fairness and satisfaction in relationships or situations.

F

Face Validity: The extent to which a measurement or assessment appears, on the surface, to measure what it is intended to measure.

Factor Analysis: A statistical technique used to identify patterns or underlying factors within a set of variables.

False Memory: A memory that is distorted or fabricated as a result of suggestions, leading questions, or other influences.

Family Systems Theory: A theoretical perspective that views the family as a complex system of interconnected individuals whose interactions influence each other.

Fatigue: A state of physical or mental exhaustion resulting from prolonged periods of exertion or stress.

Fear Conditioning: A type of classical conditioning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a fear-inducing stimulus, leading to a fear response.

Feedback: Information provided to an individual or system regarding their performance or behavior, often used to facilitate learning or adaptation.

Fight-or-Flight Response: An innate physiological reaction to perceived threat or danger, characterized by the activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the release of stress hormones.

Fixed Interval Schedule: A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcements are delivered after a fixed amount of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement.

Fixed Ratio Schedule: A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcements are delivered after a fixed number of responses.

Flooding: A behavioral therapy technique used to treat phobias and anxiety disorders by exposing individuals to feared stimuli or situations in an intense and prolonged manner until the anxiety subsides.

Fluid Intelligence: The ability to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge or experience.

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis: A theory proposing that frustration often leads to aggression as individuals seek to relieve the unpleasant emotional state caused by being blocked from achieving a goal.

Functionalism: A school of psychology that focuses on the adaptive functions of behavior and mental processes, emphasizing the importance of studying how they help individuals adapt to their environment.

Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency to overestimate the influence of internal factors and underestimate the influence of situational factors when explaining the behavior of others.

Fusion: In Gestalt psychology, the blending or merging of individual elements or sensations into a unified perceptual experience.

Fight-or-Flight Response: An automatic physiological reaction to a perceived threat or danger, preparing the body to either confront the threat or flee from it.

Freudian Slip: A verbal or behavioral mistake that is believed to reveal unconscious thoughts or desires, according to Freudian psychoanalytic theory.

Frontal Lobe: The largest lobe of the brain’s cerebral cortex, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions such as reasoning, planning, decision-making, and voluntary movement.

Functional Fixedness: A cognitive bias that limits a person’s ability to use an object or solve a problem in a novel way because of the object’s typical use or function.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): A neuroimaging technique that measures changes in blood flow and oxygenation levels in the brain, used to detect brain activity associated with specific tasks or mental processes.

Fusiform Face Area (FFA): A region of the brain located in the fusiform gyrus of the temporal lobe that is specialized for the recognition of faces.

Fovea: The central region of the retina that contains a high density of cone cells and is responsible for sharp central vision.

Floccinaucinihilipilification: The act of estimating something as worthless or insignificant. (This one’s a bit of a tongue-twister!)

Flow: A state of optimal experience characterized by intense focus, full immersion, and enjoyment in an activity, often associated with feelings of timelessness and effortless concentration.

Fixed Mindset: A belief that abilities and intelligence are fixed traits that cannot be changed or developed.

Functional Analysis: A method used in behavior therapy to identify the antecedents and consequences that maintain problematic behaviors.

Face Perception: The process of recognizing and interpreting facial features, expressions, and emotions.

Free Association: A psychoanalytic technique in which patients express themselves freely, revealing unconscious thoughts and feelings without censorship.

Flashbulb Memory: A vivid and detailed memory of a significant or emotionally charged event, often recalled with high confidence and perceived accuracy.

Fraternal Twins: Twins who develop from two separate eggs fertilized by two different sperm, sharing, on average, 50% of their genetic material, like any siblings.

Fluid Therapy: A treatment method used to restore and maintain fluid balance in the body, often administered intravenously.

Frequency Distribution: A summary of data showing the frequency or number of times each value or category occurs in a dataset.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): A set of physical, cognitive, and developmental abnormalities that result from prenatal exposure to alcohol.

Fixed Action Pattern: A sequence of instinctual behaviors that is triggered by a specific stimulus and performed in a rigid, stereotyped manner.

Functional Neuroimaging: Techniques used to visualize and measure brain activity while individuals engage in specific tasks or mental processes.

Functionalism: A school of psychology that focuses on the adaptive functions of behavior and mental processes, emphasizing the importance of studying how they help individuals adapt to their environment.

Freudian Psychoanalysis: A therapeutic approach developed by Sigmund Freud that aims to explore unconscious conflicts and bring them into conscious awareness to alleviate psychological symptoms.

Folkways: Informal social norms or customs that govern everyday behavior and interactions within a particular culture.

Fixed Interval Schedule: A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcements are delivered after a fixed amount of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement.

Fixed Ratio Schedule: A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcements are delivered after a fixed number of responses.

Foveal Vision: The central region of the retina where visual acuity is highest, allowing for detailed and sharp central vision.

Framing Effect: The influence of the way information is presented or framed on decision-making and judgment.

Functional Fixedness: A cognitive bias that limits a person’s ability to use an object or solve a problem in a novel way because of the object’s typical use or function.

Fight-or-Flight Response: An automatic physiological reaction to a perceived threat or danger, preparing the body to either confront the threat or flee from it.

False Consensus Effect: The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors.

Forebrain: The largest region of the brain, including the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus, involved in higher cognitive functions, sensory processing, and emotional regulation.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): A neuroimaging technique that measures changes in blood flow and oxygenation levels in the brain, used to detect brain activity associated with specific tasks or mental processes.

Flow: A state of optimal experience characterized by intense focus, full immersion, and enjoyment in an activity, often associated with feelings of timelessness and effortless concentration.

Forensic Psychology: The intersection of psychology and the legal system, involving the application of psychological principles and research to legal issues and criminal investigations.

G

Gamification: The application of game design elements and principles to non-game contexts to engage and motivate people.

Gate Control Theory: A theory proposing that pain perception is influenced by both nociceptive input and neural modulation at the spinal cord level.

Gender Dysphoria: Distress or discomfort experienced due to a misalignment between an individual’s assigned gender at birth and their gender identity.

Gender Identity: A person’s internal sense of their own gender, which may or may not align with the sex assigned to them at birth.

Gender Role: The societal expectations, behaviors, and attitudes associated with being male or female.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): A model describing the body’s physiological response to stress, consisting of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): A chronic psychological condition characterized by excessive worry, anxiety, and tension about everyday events and problems.

Genotype: An individual’s genetic makeup or genetic constitution.

Gestalt Psychology: A school of psychology that emphasizes the importance of studying perception as a whole rather than as the sum of its parts.

Glial Cells: Non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that provide support, insulation, and nutrients to neurons, and contribute to neural signaling.

Global Workspace Theory: A theory of consciousness proposing that consciousness arises from the integration and broadcasting of information within a neural network.

Group Polarization: The tendency for group discussion to lead to more extreme positions or attitudes than those held by individual group members prior to discussion.

Group Therapy: A form of psychotherapy in which a small group of individuals meets regularly with a therapist to discuss and work through psychological issues.

Gustation: The sense of taste, involving the detection of chemicals in food by taste buds on the tongue.

Guilt: A feeling of responsibility or remorse for having committed a wrongdoing or violating social or moral standards.

Galvanic Skin Response (GSR): A measure of changes in the electrical conductivity of the skin, often used as an indicator of emotional arousal or stress.

Gatekeeper: A term used in the context of mental health to refer to individuals or professionals who control access to mental health services or resources.

Genetic Counseling: A process that provides individuals and families with information about genetic conditions, inheritance patterns, and available testing options.

Genital Stage: In Freudian psychosexual theory, the final stage of psychosexual development occurring during adolescence, characterized by a focus on sexual gratification and mature relationships.

Gray Matter: The regions of the brain and spinal cord composed primarily of neuronal cell bodies and dendrites, responsible for information processing.

Gratitude: A positive emotion involving appreciation and thankfulness for the kindnesses, favors, and blessings received from others.

Grounded Theory: A qualitative research methodology used to develop theories and conceptual frameworks based on systematic analysis of data.

Group Cohesion: The degree of closeness, unity, and solidarity among members of a group, influencing group functioning and performance.

Growth Mindset: The belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through effort, practice, and learning.

Gender Schema Theory: A cognitive theory proposing that children develop gender schemas, or mental frameworks, based on their observations of gender-related behavior in their culture.

Graded Exposure: A behavioral therapy technique used to treat anxiety disorders, phobias, and PTSD by gradually exposing individuals to feared stimuli or situations in a controlled manner.

Generalization: The tendency to respond in a similar manner to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus, a process central to classical and operant conditioning.

Giftedness: Exceptional intellectual ability or talent, often defined as having an IQ score above a certain threshold or demonstrating outstanding performance in specific areas.

Gamut: The complete range or scope of something, often used in reference to emotions or colors.

Guided Imagery: A therapeutic technique involving the use of mental images to promote relaxation, reduce stress, and enhance well-being.

Genetic Variation: Differences in genetic material among individuals within a population, resulting from mutations, genetic recombination, and other processes.

Grounded Theory: A qualitative research methodology used to develop theories and conceptual frameworks based on systematic analysis of data.

Grief: Intense emotional suffering or sorrow experienced in response to the loss of a loved one or significant life change.

Glutamate: The primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, involved in learning, memory, and neural plasticity.

Gender Expression: The external manifestation of one’s gender identity through clothing, behavior, appearance, and other aspects of self-presentation.

Gradual Exposure: A therapeutic technique used to treat anxiety disorders and phobias by gradually exposing individuals to feared stimuli or situations in a controlled and systematic manner.

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid): The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, involved in reducing neuronal excitability and regulating anxiety.

Generalization: The tendency to respond in a similar manner to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus, a process central to classical and operant conditioning.

Graded Potential: Small changes in membrane potential that are localized to specific regions of a neuron and can vary in amplitude, often occurring in response to neurotransmitter release or sensory input.

Gray Matter: The regions of the brain and spinal cord composed primarily of neuronal cell bodies and dendrites, responsible for information processing.

Gate Control Theory: A theory proposing that pain perception is influenced by both nociceptive input and neural modulation at the spinal cord level.

Gender Dysphoria: Distress or discomfort experienced due to a misalignment between an individual’s assigned gender at birth and their gender identity.

Growth Hormone: A hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration in humans and other animals.

Gender Identity: A person’s internal sense of their own gender, which may or may not align with the sex assigned to them at birth.

Gestalt Psychology: A school of psychology that emphasizes the importance of studying perception as a whole rather than as the sum of its parts.

Global Workspace Theory: A theory of consciousness proposing that consciousness arises from the integration and broadcasting of information within a neural network.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): A chronic psychological condition characterized by excessive worry, anxiety, and tension about everyday events and problems.

Gatekeeper: A term used in the context of mental health to refer to individuals or professionals who control access to mental health services or resources.

Genetic Counseling: A process that provides individuals and families with information about genetic conditions, inheritance patterns, and available testing options.

Gender Role: The societal expectations, behaviors, and attitudes associated with being male or female.

Grounded Theory: A qualitative research methodology used to develop theories and conceptual frameworks based on systematic analysis of data.

Group Cohesion: The degree of closeness, unity, and solidarity among members of a group, influencing group functioning and performance.

Group Therapy: A form of psychotherapy in which a small group of individuals meets regularly with a therapist to discuss and work through psychological issues.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): A model describing the body’s physiological response to stress, consisting of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Glial Cells: Non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that provide support, insulation, and nutrients to neurons, and contribute to neural signaling.

Gustation: The sense of taste, involving the detection of chemicals in food by taste buds on the tongue.

Gray Matter: The regions of the brain and spinal cord composed primarily of neuronal cell bodies and dendrites, responsible for information processing.

Gratitude: A positive emotion involving appreciation and thankfulness for the kindnesses, favors, and blessings received from others.

Gatekeeper: A term used in the context of mental health to refer to individuals or professionals who control access to mental health services or resources.

Genetic Counseling: A process that provides individuals and families with information about genetic conditions, inheritance patterns, and available testing options.

Generalization: The tendency to respond in a similar manner to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus, a process central to classical and operant conditioning.

Graded Potential: Small changes in membrane potential that are localized to specific regions of a neuron and can vary in amplitude, often occurring in response to neurotransmitter release or sensory input.

Gender Dysphoria: Distress or discomfort experienced due to a misalignment between an individual’s assigned gender at birth and their gender identity.

Growth Hormone: A hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration in humans and other animals.

Gender Identity: A person’s internal sense of their own gender, which may or may not align with the sex assigned to them at birth.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): A chronic psychological condition characterized by excessive worry, anxiety, and tension about everyday events and problems.

Glial Cells: Non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that provide support, insulation, and nutrients to neurons, and contribute to neural signaling.

Group Therapy: A form of psychotherapy in which a small group of individuals meets regularly with a therapist to discuss and work through psychological issues.

Gate Control Theory: A theory proposing that pain perception is influenced by both nociceptive input and neural modulation at the spinal cord level.

Gestalt Psychology: A school of psychology that emphasizes the importance of studying perception as a whole rather than as the sum of its parts.

Grounded Theory: A qualitative research methodology used to develop theories and conceptual frameworks based on systematic analysis of data.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): A model describing the body’s physiological response to stress, consisting of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Gustation: The sense of taste, involving the detection of chemicals in food by taste buds on the tongue.

Gray Matter: The regions of the brain and spinal cord composed primarily of neuronal cell bodies and dendrites, responsible for information processing.

Group Cohesion: The degree of closeness, unity, and solidarity among members of a group, influencing group functioning and performance.

Gratitude: A positive emotion involving appreciation and thankfulness for the kindnesses, favors, and blessings received from others.

Genetic Counseling: A process that provides individuals and families with information about genetic conditions, inheritance patterns, and available testing options.

Generalization: The tendency to respond in a similar manner to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus, a process central to classical and operant conditioning.

Gatekeeper: A term used in the context of mental health to refer to individuals or professionals who control access to mental health services or resources.

Graded Potential: Small changes in membrane potential that are localized to specific regions of a neuron and can vary in amplitude, often occurring in response to neurotransmitter release or sensory input.

Gender Dysphoria: Distress or discomfort experienced due to a misalignment between an individual’s assigned gender at birth and their gender identity.

Growth Hormone: A hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration in humans and other animals.

Gender Identity: A person’s internal sense of their own gender, which may or may not align with the sex assigned to them at birth.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): A chronic psychological condition characterized by excessive worry, anxiety, and tension about everyday events and problems.

Glial Cells: Non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that provide support, insulation, and nutrients to neurons, and contribute to neural signaling.

Group Therapy: A form of psychotherapy in which a small group of individuals meets regularly with a therapist to discuss and work through psychological issues.

Gate Control Theory: A theory proposing that pain perception is influenced by both nociceptive input and neural modulation at the spinal cord level.

Gestalt Psychology: A school of psychology that emphasizes the importance of studying perception as a whole rather than as the sum of its parts.

Grounded Theory: A qualitative research methodology used to develop theories and conceptual frameworks based on systematic analysis of data.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): A model describing the body’s physiological response to stress, consisting of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Gustation: The sense of taste, involving the detection of chemicals in food by taste buds on the tongue.

Gray Matter: The regions of the brain and spinal cord composed primarily of neuronal cell bodies and dendrites, responsible for information processing.

Group Cohesion: The degree of closeness, unity, and solidarity among members of a group, influencing group functioning and performance.

Gratitude: A positive emotion involving appreciation and thankfulness for the kindnesses, favors, and blessings received from others.

Genetic Counseling: A process that provides individuals and families with information about genetic conditions, inheritance patterns, and available testing options.

Generalization: The tendency to respond in a similar manner to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus, a process central to classical and operant conditioning.

Gatekeeper: A term used in the context of mental health to refer to individuals or professionals who control access to mental health services or resources.

Graded Potential: Small changes in membrane potential that are localized to specific regions of a neuron and can vary in amplitude, often occurring in response to neurotransmitter release or sensory input.

Gender Dysphoria: Distress or discomfort experienced due to a misalignment between an individual’s assigned gender at birth and their gender identity.

Growth Hormone: A hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration in humans and other animals.

H

Hallucination: Perceptions of objects or events that seem real but are not caused by external stimuli, often occurring in the absence of sensory input.

Hypothesis: A testable prediction or statement that proposes a relationship between variables, often used in research.

Humanistic Psychology: A psychological perspective that emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness of individuals.

Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it or known it all along.

Hypnosis: A trance-like state of heightened suggestibility, relaxation, and focused attention, often used for therapeutic purposes.

Hippocampus: A brain structure involved in memory formation, spatial navigation, and learning.

Heritability: The extent to which individual differences in traits or behaviors can be attributed to genetic factors.

Hostility: A negative emotional state characterized by anger, aggression, and antagonism toward others.

Homeostasis: The tendency of biological systems to maintain stability and regulate internal conditions despite external changes.

Human Development: The process of growth and change across the lifespan, including physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional aspects.

Hierarchy of Needs: A motivational theory proposed by Abraham Maslow, suggesting that human needs are organized in a hierarchical structure, with basic physiological needs at the base and self-actualization at the top.

Hypothesis Testing: The process of using statistical analysis to evaluate the likelihood of a hypothesis being true or false based on observed data.

Hallucinogen: A substance that alters perception, mood, and consciousness, often causing hallucinations, sensory distortions, and changes in thought processes.

Histrionic Personality Disorder: A mental health disorder characterized by excessive attention-seeking, emotional instability, and dramatic behavior.

Heuristic: A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that allows for quick problem-solving and decision-making, but may not always lead to optimal outcomes.

Habituation: A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated or prolonged exposure, reflecting a form of learning.

Human Factors Psychology: A field of psychology that focuses on the interaction between humans and technology or designed environments to optimize performance and safety.

Hypothalamus: A brain structure involved in regulating basic biological functions such as hunger, thirst, temperature, and sleep.

Hedonism: The pursuit of pleasure or happiness as the ultimate goal of life, often associated with self-indulgence and immediate gratification.

Higher-order Conditioning: A type of learning in which a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, resulting in the new stimulus eliciting a conditioned response.

Hostile Attribution Bias: The tendency to interpret ambiguous or neutral actions as intentionally hostile or threatening.

Hypochondriasis: A psychological disorder characterized by excessive worry and preoccupation with having a serious illness or medical condition.

Hemispatial Neglect: A neurological condition characterized by an inability to attend to or perceive stimuli on one side of the body or environment, often following brain damage.

Human Factors Psychology: A field of psychology that focuses on the interaction between humans and technology or designed environments to optimize performance and safety.

Hypothalamus: A brain structure involved in regulating basic biological functions such as hunger, thirst, temperature, and sleep.

Habituation: A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated or prolonged exposure, reflecting a form of learning.

Human Development: The process of growth and change across the lifespan, including physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional aspects.

Hallucination: Perceptions of objects or events that seem real but are not caused by external stimuli, often occurring in the absence of sensory input.

Hypnosis: A trance-like state of heightened suggestibility, relaxation, and focused attention, often used for therapeutic purposes.

Hierarchy of Needs: A motivational theory proposed by Abraham Maslow, suggesting that human needs are organized in a hierarchical structure, with basic physiological needs at the base and self-actualization at the top.

Heritability: The extent to which individual differences in traits or behaviors can be attributed to genetic factors.

Hostility: A negative emotional state characterized by anger, aggression, and antagonism toward others.

Homeostasis: The tendency of biological systems to maintain stability and regulate internal conditions despite external changes.

Humanistic Psychology: A psychological perspective that emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness of individuals.

Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it or known it all along.

Hypothesis: A testable prediction or statement that proposes a relationship between variables, often used in research.

Hippocampus: A brain structure involved in memory formation, spatial navigation, and learning.

Hostility: A negative emotional state characterized by anger, aggression, and antagonism toward others.

Homeostasis: The tendency of biological systems to maintain stability and regulate internal conditions despite external changes.

Human Development: The process of growth and change across the lifespan, including physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional aspects.

Hierarchy of Needs: A motivational theory proposed by Abraham Maslow, suggesting that human needs are organized in a hierarchical structure, with basic physiological needs at the base and self-actualization at the top.

Hypothesis Testing: The process of using statistical analysis to evaluate the likelihood of a hypothesis being true or false based on observed data.

Hostile Attribution Bias: The tendency to interpret ambiguous or neutral actions as intentionally hostile or threatening.

Hemispatial Neglect: A neurological condition characterized by an inability to attend to or perceive stimuli on one side of the body or environment, often following brain damage.

Hedonism: The pursuit of pleasure or happiness as the ultimate goal of life, often associated with self-indulgence and immediate gratification.

Human Factors Psychology: A field of psychology that focuses on the interaction between humans and technology or designed environments to optimize performance and safety.

Hypothalamus: A brain structure involved in regulating basic biological functions such as hunger, thirst, temperature, and sleep.

Habituation: A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated or prolonged exposure, reflecting a form of learning.

Higher-order Conditioning: A type of learning in which a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, resulting in the new stimulus eliciting a conditioned response.

Hypochondriasis: A psychological disorder characterized by excessive worry and preoccupation with having a serious illness or medical condition.

Hallucination: Perceptions of objects or events that seem real but are not caused by external stimuli, often occurring in the absence of sensory input.

Humanistic Psychology: A psychological perspective that emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness of individuals.

Hypnosis: A trance-like state of heightened suggestibility, relaxation, and focused attention, often used for therapeutic purposes.

Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it or known it all along.

Hypothesis: A testable prediction or statement that proposes a relationship between variables, often used in research.

Heritability: The extent to which individual differences in traits or behaviors can be attributed to genetic factors.

Hostility: A negative emotional state characterized by anger, aggression, and antagonism toward others.

Homeostasis: The tendency of biological systems to maintain stability and regulate internal conditions despite external changes.

Human Development: The process of growth and change across the lifespan, including physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional aspects.

Hierarchy of Needs: A motivational theory proposed by Abraham Maslow, suggesting that human needs are organized in a hierarchical structure, with basic physiological needs at the base and self-actualization at the top.

Hypothesis Testing: The process of using statistical analysis to evaluate the likelihood of a hypothesis being true or false based on observed data.

Hallucination: Perceptions of objects or events that seem real but are not caused by external stimuli, often occurring in the absence of sensory input.

Hypnosis: A trance-like state of heightened suggestibility, relaxation, and focused attention, often used for therapeutic purposes.

Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it or known it all along.

Hypothesis: A testable prediction or statement that proposes a relationship between variables, often used in research.

Heritability: The extent to which individual differences in traits or behaviors can be attributed to genetic factors.

Hostility: A negative emotional state characterized by anger, aggression, and antagonism toward others.

Homeostasis: The tendency of biological systems to maintain stability and regulate internal conditions despite external changes.

Human Development: The process of growth and change across the lifespan, including physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional aspects.

Hierarchy of Needs: A motivational theory proposed by Abraham Maslow, suggesting that human needs are organized in a hierarchical structure, with basic physiological needs at the base and self-actualization at the top.

Hypothesis Testing: The process of using statistical analysis to evaluate the likelihood of a hypothesis being true or false based on observed data.

Hallucinogen: A substance that alters perception, mood, and consciousness, often causing hallucinations, sensory distortions, and changes in thought processes.

Histrionic Personality Disorder: A mental health disorder characterized by excessive attention-seeking, emotional instability, and dramatic behavior.

Heuristic: A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that allows for quick problem-solving and decision-making, but may not always lead to optimal outcomes.

Habituation: A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated or prolonged exposure, reflecting a form of learning.

Human Factors Psychology: A field of psychology that focuses on the interaction between humans and technology or designed environments to optimize performance and safety.

Hypothalamus: A brain structure involved in regulating basic biological functions such as hunger, thirst, temperature, and sleep.

Hierarchy of Needs: A motivational theory proposed by Abraham Maslow, suggesting that human needs are organized in a hierarchical structure, with basic physiological needs at the base and self-actualization at the top.

Hypnosis: A trance-like state of heightened suggestibility, relaxation, and focused attention, often used for therapeutic purposes.

Hemispatial Neglect: A neurological condition characterized by an inability to attend to or perceive stimuli on one side of the body or environment, often following brain damage.

Hedonism: The pursuit of pleasure or happiness as the ultimate goal of life, often associated with self-indulgence and immediate gratification.

Humanistic Psychology: A psychological perspective that emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness of individuals.

Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it or known it all along.

Higher-order Conditioning: A type of learning in which a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, resulting in the new stimulus eliciting a conditioned response.

Habituation: A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated or prolonged exposure, reflecting a form of learning.

Human Factors Psychology: A field of psychology that focuses on the interaction between humans and technology or designed environments to optimize performance and safety.

Hypothesis: A testable prediction or statement that proposes a relationship between variables, often used in research.

Hostility: A negative emotional state characterized by anger, aggression, and antagonism toward others.

Histrionic Personality Disorder: A mental health disorder characterized by excessive attention-seeking, emotional instability, and dramatic behavior.

Human Development: The process of growth and change across the lifespan, including physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional aspects.

Hypothesis Testing: The process of using statistical analysis to evaluate the likelihood of a hypothesis being true or false

I

Id: In psychoanalytic theory, the part of the personality representing primal, instinctual drives, often unconscious and seeking immediate gratification.

Inferiority Complex: A psychological condition characterized by feelings of inadequacy, low self-worth, and a persistent sense of being inferior to others.

Internal Locus of Control: The belief that one’s outcomes in life are largely influenced by one’s own actions, decisions, and efforts.

Insight: The understanding of the true nature of a problem or situation, often leading to behavioral or emotional change.

Introspection: The process of examining one’s own thoughts, feelings, and sensations, often used in early psychology as a method of inquiry.

Intelligence: The ability to acquire, understand, and apply knowledge and skills effectively to solve problems and adapt to new situations.

Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT): A time-limited psychotherapy approach focused on improving interpersonal relationships and addressing specific interpersonal issues.

Implicit Memory: Memory that is not consciously recalled but influences behavior or thought, such as procedural memory or priming.

Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by internal factors such as personal interest, enjoyment, or satisfaction derived from the activity itself.

Independent Variable: In experimental research, the variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher to observe its effects on the dependent variable.

Instrumental Conditioning: A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences, also known as operant conditioning.

Intuition: The ability to understand or know something without conscious reasoning or logical analysis, often based on gut feelings or instincts.

Irrational Beliefs: Unreasonable or illogical beliefs that contribute to emotional distress or dysfunctional behavior, often addressed in cognitive therapy.

Impulse Control Disorders: A group of mental health disorders characterized by difficulty controlling impulses or urges, such as gambling disorder or kleptomania.

Insight Therapy: A type of psychotherapy aimed at increasing self-awareness and understanding of underlying emotions, motivations, and patterns of behavior.

Inferential Statistics: Statistical methods used to analyze data and make inferences or predictions about populations based on sample data.

Informed Consent: The ethical principle requiring that individuals give voluntary and fully informed consent before participating in research or treatment.

Inductive Reasoning: A type of reasoning that involves deriving general principles or conclusions from specific observations or evidence.

Intergenerational Transmission: The transfer of behaviors, beliefs, or psychological characteristics from one generation to another within a family or social group.

Incubation: The process of unconscious processing or problem-solving that occurs when one takes a break from conscious effort, often leading to insights or solutions.

Imposter Syndrome: A psychological phenomenon characterized by feelings of inadequacy, self-doubt, and the fear of being exposed as a fraud, despite evidence of competence or success.

Intellectual Disability: A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior, typically diagnosed in childhood.

Insight-Oriented Therapy: Psychotherapy approaches that focus on increasing self-awareness and understanding of unconscious thoughts, emotions, and motivations.

Inattentional Blindness: The failure to notice or perceive an unexpected stimulus or event in one’s environment when attention is focused elsewhere.

Identity Crisis: A period of psychological turmoil and confusion surrounding one’s sense of self, values, and goals, often occurring during adolescence or major life transitions.

Illusory Correlation: The perception of a relationship between two variables that does not actually exist or is much weaker than perceived.

Inferiority Complex: A psychological condition characterized by feelings of inadequacy, low self-worth, and a persistent sense of being inferior to others.

Internal Locus of Control: The belief that one’s outcomes in life are largely influenced by one’s own actions, decisions, and efforts.

Insight: The understanding of the true nature of a problem or situation, often leading to behavioral or emotional change.

Introspection: The process of examining one’s own thoughts, feelings, and sensations, often used in early psychology as a method of inquiry.

Intelligence: The ability to acquire, understand, and apply knowledge and skills effectively to solve problems and adapt to new situations.

Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT): A time-limited psychotherapy approach focused on improving interpersonal relationships and addressing specific interpersonal issues.

Implicit Memory: Memory that is not consciously recalled but influences behavior or thought, such as procedural memory or priming.

Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by internal factors such as personal interest, enjoyment, or satisfaction derived from the activity itself.

Independent Variable: In experimental research, the variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher to observe its effects on the dependent variable.

Instrumental Conditioning: A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences, also known as operant conditioning.

Intuition: The ability to understand or know something without conscious reasoning or logical analysis, often based on gut feelings or instincts.

Irrational Beliefs: Unreasonable or illogical beliefs that contribute to emotional distress or dysfunctional behavior, often addressed in cognitive therapy.

Impulse Control Disorders: A group of mental health disorders characterized by difficulty controlling impulses or urges, such as gambling disorder or kleptomania.

Insight Therapy: A type of psychotherapy aimed at increasing self-awareness and understanding of underlying emotions, motivations, and patterns of behavior.

Inferential Statistics: Statistical methods used to analyze data and make inferences or predictions about populations based on sample data.

Informed Consent: The ethical principle requiring that individuals give voluntary and fully informed consent before participating in research or treatment.

Inductive Reasoning: A type of reasoning that involves deriving general principles or conclusions from specific observations or evidence.

Intergenerational Transmission: The transfer of behaviors, beliefs, or psychological characteristics from one generation to another within a family or social group.

Incubation: The process of unconscious processing or problem-solving that occurs when one takes a break from conscious effort, often leading to insights or solutions.

Imposter Syndrome: A psychological phenomenon characterized by feelings of inadequacy, self-doubt, and the fear of being exposed as a fraud, despite evidence of competence or success.

Intellectual Disability: A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior, typically diagnosed in childhood.

Insight-Oriented Therapy: Psychotherapy approaches that focus on increasing self-awareness and understanding of unconscious thoughts, emotions, and motivations.

Inattentional Blindness: The failure to notice or perceive an unexpected stimulus or event in one’s environment when attention is focused elsewhere.

Identity Crisis: A period of psychological turmoil and confusion surrounding one’s sense of self, values, and goals, often occurring during adolescence or major life transitions.

Individual Psychology: A psychological theory and therapy approach developed by Alfred Adler, focusing on understanding individuals within the context of their unique experiences and goals.

Intergroup Relations: The interactions, attitudes, and behaviors between individuals belonging to different social groups, often influenced by stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination.

In-Group Bias: The tendency to favor members of one’s own social group over those in other groups, often leading to favoritism and discrimination.

Internalization: The process of adopting or incorporating external norms, values, or beliefs into one’s own identity or worldview.

Intimate Partner Violence (IPV): Physical, sexual, or psychological harm inflicted by a current or former romantic partner, often characterized by a pattern of control and coercion.

In-Group: A social group to which an individual belongs or identifies with, often leading to feelings of solidarity, loyalty, and belonging.

Implicit Bias: Unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that influence judgments, decisions, and behavior towards members of certain social groups, often without awareness.

Identity Formation: The process of developing a sense of self and a coherent identity, including aspects such as personal values, beliefs, and social roles.

Infant Attachment: The emotional bond that forms between infants and their primary caregivers, influencing later social and emotional development.

Intimate Relationships: Close, personal connections between individuals characterized by emotional intimacy, trust, and mutual support.

Interpersonal Conflict: Disagreements, tensions, or disputes between individuals arising from differences in goals, interests, or perspectives.

Insight: The understanding of the true nature of a problem or situation, often leading to behavioral or emotional change.

Internal Locus of Control: The belief that one’s outcomes in life are largely influenced by one’s own actions, decisions, and efforts.

Inferiority Complex: A psychological condition characterized by feelings of inadequacy, low self-worth, and a persistent sense of being inferior to others.

Introspection: The process of examining one’s own thoughts, feelings, and sensations, often used in early psychology as a method of inquiry.

Intelligence: The ability to acquire, understand, and apply knowledge and skills effectively to solve problems and adapt to new situations.

Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT): A time-limited psychotherapy approach focused on improving interpersonal relationships and addressing specific interpersonal issues.

Implicit Memory: Memory that is not consciously recalled but influences behavior or thought, such as procedural memory or priming.

Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by internal factors such as personal interest, enjoyment, or satisfaction derived from the activity itself.

Independent Variable: In experimental research, the variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher to observe its effects on the dependent variable.

Instrumental Conditioning: A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences, also known as operant conditioning.

Intuition: The ability to understand or know something without conscious reasoning or logical analysis, often based on gut feelings or instincts.

Irrational Beliefs: Unreasonable or illogical beliefs that contribute to emotional distress or dysfunctional behavior, often addressed in cognitive therapy.

Impulse Control Disorders: A group of mental health disorders characterized by difficulty controlling impulses or urges, such as gambling disorder or kleptomania.

Insight Therapy: A type of psychotherapy aimed at increasing self-awareness and understanding of underlying emotions, motivations, and patterns of behavior.

Inferential Statistics: Statistical methods used to analyze data and make inferences or predictions about populations based on sample data.

Informed Consent: The ethical principle requiring that individuals give voluntary and fully informed consent before participating in research or treatment.

Inductive Reasoning: A type of reasoning that involves deriving general principles or conclusions from specific observations or evidence.

Intergenerational Transmission: The transfer of behaviors, beliefs, or psychological characteristics from one generation to another within a family or social group.

Incubation: The process of unconscious processing or problem-solving that occurs when one takes a break from conscious effort, often leading to insights or solutions.

Imposter Syndrome: A psychological phenomenon characterized by feelings of inadequacy, self-doubt, and the fear of being exposed as a fraud, despite evidence of competence or success.

Intellectual Disability: A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior, typically diagnosed in childhood.

Insight-Oriented Therapy: Psychotherapy approaches that focus on increasing self-awareness and understanding of unconscious thoughts, emotions, and motivations.

Inattentional Blindness: The failure to notice or perceive an unexpected stimulus or event in one’s environment when attention is focused elsewhere.

Identity Crisis: A period of psychological turmoil and confusion surrounding one’s sense of self, values, and goals, often occurring during adolescence or major life transitions.

Individual Psychology: A psychological theory and therapy approach developed by Alfred Adler, focusing on understanding individuals within the context of their unique experiences and goals.

Intergroup Relations: The interactions, attitudes, and behaviors between individuals belonging to different social groups, often influenced by stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination.

In-Group Bias: The tendency to favor members of one’s own social group over those in other groups, often leading to favoritism and discrimination.

Internalization: The process of adopting or incorporating external norms, values, or beliefs into one’s own identity or worldview.

Intimate Partner Violence (IPV): Physical, sexual, or psychological harm inflicted by a current or former romantic partner, often characterized by a pattern of control and coercion.

In-Group: A social group to which an individual belongs or identifies with, often leading to feelings of solidarity, loyalty, and belonging.

Implicit Bias: Unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that influence judgments, decisions, and behavior towards members of certain social groups, often without awareness.

Identity Formation: The process of developing a sense of self and a coherent identity, including aspects such as personal values, beliefs, and social roles.

Infant Attachment: The emotional bond that forms between infants and their primary caregivers, influencing later social and emotional development.

Intimate Relationships: Close, personal connections between individuals characterized by emotional intimacy, trust, and mutual support.

Interpersonal Conflict: Disagreements, tensions, or disputes between individuals arising from differences in goals, interests, or perspectives.

Insight: The understanding of the true nature of a problem or situation, often leading to behavioral or emotional change.

Internal Locus of Control: The belief that one’s outcomes in life are largely influenced by one’s own actions, decisions, and efforts.

Inferiority Complex: A psychological condition characterized by feelings of inadequacy, low self-worth, and a persistent sense of being inferior to others.

Introspection: The process of examining one’s own thoughts, feelings, and sensations, often used in early psychology as a method of inquiry.

J

Just Noticeable Difference (JND): The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli that is perceivable by an observer, also known as the difference threshold.

Jungian Psychology: Psychological theories and therapeutic approaches developed by Carl Jung, emphasizing the exploration of the collective unconscious, archetypes, and individuation.

Jigsaw Classroom: A cooperative learning technique where students work together in small groups to solve a larger problem or complete a task, promoting interdependence and positive intergroup relations.

Job Satisfaction: An individual’s subjective evaluation of their overall feelings and attitudes towards their job, including aspects such as fulfillment, enjoyment, and contentment.

Joint Attention: The ability to share attention with others towards the same object or event, typically observed in infancy and crucial for social communication and learning.

Judgment: The process of forming opinions, evaluations, or conclusions about people, events, or situations based on available information and personal beliefs.

Jealousy: A complex emotional response characterized by fear, insecurity, and resentment towards a perceived threat to a valued relationship or possession.

Juxtaposition: The act of placing two or more things close together or side by side for comparison or contrast, often used in art, literature, and psychology to evoke meaning or provoke thought.

Juvenile Delinquency: Behavior by minors that is unlawful or antisocial, often involving acts such as vandalism, theft, or violence, and influenced by individual, familial, and societal factors.

Just World Hypothesis: The belief that individuals get what they deserve and deserve what they get, leading to attributions of blame or merit based on perceived fairness, and impacting attitudes towards victims of misfortune.

Joint Attention: The ability to share attention with others towards the same object or event, typically observed in infancy and crucial for social communication and learning.

Judgment: The process of forming opinions, evaluations, or conclusions about people, events, or situations based on available information and personal beliefs.

Jealousy: A complex emotional response characterized by fear, insecurity, and resentment towards a perceived threat to a valued relationship or possession.

Juxtaposition: The act of placing two or more things close together or side by side for comparison or contrast, often used in art, literature, and psychology to evoke meaning or provoke thought.

Juvenile Delinquency: Behavior by minors that is unlawful or antisocial, often involving acts such as vandalism, theft, or violence, and influenced by individual, familial, and societal factors.

Just World Hypothesis: The belief that individuals get what they deserve and deserve what they get, leading to attributions of blame or merit based on perceived fairness, and impacting attitudes towards victims of misfortune.

Just Noticeable Difference (JND): The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli that is perceivable by an observer, also known as the difference threshold.

Jungian Psychology: Psychological theories and therapeutic approaches developed by Carl Jung, emphasizing the exploration of the collective unconscious, archetypes, and individuation.

Jigsaw Classroom: A cooperative learning technique where students work together in small groups to solve a larger problem or complete a task, promoting interdependence and positive intergroup relations.

Job Satisfaction: An individual’s subjective evaluation of their overall feelings and attitudes towards their job, including aspects such as fulfillment, enjoyment, and contentment.

Joint Attention: The ability to share attention with others towards the same object or event, typically observed in infancy and crucial for social communication and learning.

Judgment: The process of forming opinions, evaluations, or conclusions about people, events, or situations based on available information and personal beliefs.

Jealousy: A complex emotional response characterized by fear, insecurity, and resentment towards a perceived threat to a valued relationship or possession.

Juxtaposition: The act of placing two or more things close together or side by side for comparison or contrast, often used in art, literature, and psychology to evoke meaning or provoke thought.

Juvenile Delinquency: Behavior by minors that is unlawful or antisocial, often involving acts such as vandalism, theft, or violence, and influenced by individual, familial, and societal factors.

Just World Hypothesis: The belief that individuals get what they deserve and deserve what they get, leading to attributions of blame or merit based on perceived fairness, and impacting attitudes towards victims of misfortune.

Joint Attention: The ability to share attention with others towards the same object or event, typically observed in infancy and crucial for social communication and learning.

Judgment: The process of forming opinions, evaluations, or conclusions about people, events, or situations based on available information and personal beliefs.

Jealousy: A complex emotional response characterized by fear, insecurity, and resentment towards a perceived threat to a valued relationship or possession.

Juxtaposition: The act of placing two or more things close together or side by side for comparison or contrast, often used in art, literature, and psychology to evoke meaning or provoke thought.

Juvenile Delinquency: Behavior by minors that is unlawful or antisocial, often involving acts such as vandalism, theft, or violence, and influenced by individual, familial, and societal factors.

Just World Hypothesis: The belief that individuals get what they deserve and deserve what they get, leading to attributions of blame or merit based on perceived fairness, and impacting attitudes towards victims of misfortune.

Just Noticeable Difference (JND): The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli that is perceivable by an observer, also known as the difference threshold.

Jungian Psychology: Psychological theories and therapeutic approaches developed by Carl Jung, emphasizing the exploration of the collective unconscious, archetypes, and individuation.

Jigsaw Classroom: A cooperative learning technique where students work together in small groups to solve a larger problem or complete a task, promoting interdependence and positive intergroup relations.

Job Satisfaction: An individual’s subjective evaluation of their overall feelings and attitudes towards their job, including aspects such as fulfillment, enjoyment, and contentment.

Joint Attention: The ability to share attention with others towards the same object or event, typically observed in infancy and crucial for social communication and learning.

Judgment: The process of forming opinions, evaluations, or conclusions about people, events, or situations based on available information and personal beliefs.

Jealousy: A complex emotional response characterized by fear, insecurity, and resentment towards a perceived threat to a valued relationship or possession.

Juxtaposition: The act of placing two or more things close together or side by side for comparison or contrast, often used in art, literature, and psychology to evoke meaning or provoke thought.

Juvenile Delinquency: Behavior by minors that is unlawful or antisocial, often involving acts such as vandalism, theft, or violence, and influenced by individual, familial, and societal factors.

Just World Hypothesis: The belief that individuals get what they deserve and deserve what they get, leading to attributions of blame or merit based on perceived fairness, and impacting attitudes towards victims of misfortune.

Joint Attention: The ability to share attention with others towards the same object or event, typically observed in infancy and crucial for social communication and learning.

Judgment: The process of forming opinions, evaluations, or conclusions about people, events, or situations based on available information and personal beliefs.

Jealousy: A complex emotional response characterized by fear, insecurity, and resentment towards a perceived threat to a valued relationship or possession.

Juxtaposition: The act of placing two or more things close together or side by side for comparison or contrast, often used in art, literature, and psychology to evoke meaning or provoke thought.

Juvenile Delinquency: Behavior by minors that is unlawful or antisocial, often involving acts such as vandalism, theft, or violence, and influenced by individual, familial, and societal factors.

Just World Hypothesis: The belief that individuals get what they deserve and deserve what they get, leading to attributions of blame or merit based on perceived fairness, and impacting attitudes towards victims of misfortune.

Just Noticeable Difference (JND): The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli that is perceivable by an observer, also known as the difference threshold.

Jungian Psychology: Psychological theories and therapeutic approaches developed by Carl Jung, emphasizing the exploration of the collective unconscious, archetypes, and individuation.

Jigsaw Classroom: A cooperative learning technique where students work together in small groups to solve a larger problem or complete a task, promoting interdependence and positive intergroup relations.

Job Satisfaction: An individual’s subjective evaluation of their overall feelings and attitudes towards their job, including aspects such as fulfillment, enjoyment, and contentment.

Joint Attention: The ability to share attention with others towards the same object or event, typically observed in infancy and crucial for social communication and learning.

Judgment: The process of forming opinions, evaluations, or conclusions about people, events, or situations based on available information and personal beliefs.

Jealousy: A complex emotional response characterized by fear, insecurity, and resentment towards a perceived threat to a valued relationship or possession.

Juxtaposition: The act of placing two or more things close together or side by side for comparison or contrast, often used in art, literature, and psychology to evoke meaning or provoke thought.

Juvenile Delinquency: Behavior by minors that is unlawful or antisocial, often involving acts such as vandalism, theft, or violence, and influenced by individual, familial, and societal factors.

Just World Hypothesis: The belief that individuals get what they deserve and deserve what they get, leading to attributions of blame or merit based on perceived fairness, and impacting attitudes towards victims of misfortune.

Joint Attention: The ability to share attention with others towards the same object or event, typically observed in infancy and crucial for social communication and learning.

Judgment: The process of forming opinions, evaluations, or conclusions about people, events, or situations based on available information and personal beliefs.

Jealousy: A complex emotional response characterized by fear, insecurity, and resentment towards a perceived threat to a valued relationship or possession.

Juxtaposition: The act of placing two or more things close together or side by side for comparison or contrast, often used in art, literature, and psychology to evoke meaning or provoke thought.

Juvenile Delinquency: Behavior by minors that is unlawful or antisocial, often involving acts such as vandalism, theft, or violence, and influenced by individual, familial, and societal factors.

Just World Hypothesis: The belief that individuals get what they deserve and deserve what they get, leading to attributions of blame or merit based on perceived fairness, and impacting attitudes towards victims of misfortune.

Just Noticeable Difference (JND): The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli that is perceivable by an observer, also known as the difference threshold.

Jungian Psychology: Psychological theories and therapeutic approaches developed by Carl Jung, emphasizing the exploration of the collective unconscious, archetypes, and individuation.

Jigsaw Classroom: A cooperative learning technique where students work together in small groups to solve a larger problem or complete a task, promoting interdependence and positive intergroup relations.

Job Satisfaction: An individual’s subjective evaluation of their overall feelings and attitudes towards their job, including aspects such as fulfillment, enjoyment, and contentment.

Joint Attention: The ability to share attention with others towards the same object or event, typically observed in infancy and crucial for social communication and learning.

Judgment: The process of forming opinions, evaluations, or conclusions about people, events, or situations based on available information and personal beliefs.

Jealousy: A complex emotional response characterized by fear, insecurity, and resentment towards a perceived threat to a valued relationship or possession.

Juxtaposition: The act of placing two or more things close together or side by side for comparison or contrast, often used in art, literature, and psychology to evoke meaning or provoke thought.

Juvenile Delinquency: Behavior by minors that is unlawful or antisocial, often involving acts such as vandalism, theft, or violence, and influenced by individual, familial, and societal factors.

Just World Hypothesis: The belief that individuals get what they deserve and deserve what they get, leading to attributions of blame or merit based on perceived fairness, and impacting attitudes towards victims of misfortune.

Joint Attention: The ability to share attention with others towards the same object or event, typically observed in infancy and crucial for social communication and learning.

Judgment: The process of forming opinions, evaluations, or conclusions about people, events, or situations based on available information and personal beliefs.

Jealousy: A complex emotional response characterized by fear, insecurity, and resentment towards a perceived threat to a valued relationship or possession.

Juxtaposition: The act of placing two or more things close together or side by side for comparison or contrast, often used in art, literature, and psychology to evoke meaning or provoke thought.

Juvenile Delinquency: Behavior by minors that is unlawful or antisocial, often involving acts such as vandalism, theft, or violence, and influenced by individual, familial, and societal factors.

Just World Hypothesis: The belief that individuals get what they deserve and deserve what they get, leading to attributions of blame or merit based on perceived fairness, and impacting attitudes towards victims of misfortune.

Just Noticeable Difference (JND): The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli that is perceivable by an observer, also known as the difference threshold.

Jungian Psychology: Psychological theories and therapeutic approaches developed by Carl Jung, emphasizing the exploration of the collective unconscious, archetypes, and individuation.

Jigsaw Classroom: A cooperative learning technique where students work together in small groups to solve a larger problem or complete a task, promoting interdependence and positive intergroup relations.

Job Satisfaction: An individual’s subjective evaluation of their overall feelings and attitudes towards their job, including aspects such as fulfillment, enjoyment, and contentment.

Joint Attention: The ability to share attention with others towards the same object or event, typically observed in infancy and crucial for social communication and learning.

Judgment: The process of forming opinions, evaluations, or conclusions about people, events, or situations based on available information and personal beliefs.

Jealousy: A complex emotional response characterized by fear, insecurity, and resentment towards a perceived threat to a valued relationship or possession.

Juxtaposition: The act of placing two or more things close together or side by side for comparison or contrast, often used in art, literature, and psychology to evoke meaning or provoke thought.

Juvenile Delinquency: Behavior by minors that is unlawful or antisocial, often involving acts such as vandalism, theft, or violence, and influenced by individual, familial, and societal factors.

Just World Hypothesis: The belief that individuals get what they deserve and deserve what they get, leading to attributions of blame or merit based on perceived fairness, and impacting attitudes towards victims of misfortune.

Just Noticeable Difference (JND): The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli that is perceivable by an observer, also known as the difference threshold.

Jungian Psychology: Psychological theories and therapeutic approaches developed by Carl Jung, emphasizing the exploration of the collective unconscious, archetypes, and individuation.

Jigsaw Classroom: A cooperative learning technique where students work together in small groups to solve a larger problem or complete a task, promoting interdependence and positive intergroup relations.

Job Satisfaction: An individual’s subjective evaluation of their overall feelings and attitudes towards their job, including aspects such as fulfillment, enjoyment, and contentment.

Joint Attention: The ability to share attention with others towards the same object or event, typically observed in infancy and crucial for social communication and learning.

Judgment: The process of forming opinions, evaluations, or conclusions about people, events, or situations based on available information and personal beliefs.

Jealousy: A complex emotional response characterized by fear, insecurity, and resentment towards a perceived threat to a valued relationship or possession.

Juxtaposition: The act of placing two or more things close together or side by side for comparison or contrast, often used in art, literature, and psychology to evoke meaning or provoke thought.

Juvenile Delinquency: Behavior by minors that is unlawful or antisocial, often involving acts such as vandalism, theft, or violence, and influenced by individual, familial, and societal factors.

Just World Hypothesis: The belief that individuals get what they deserve and deserve what they get, leading to attributions of blame or merit based on perceived fairness, and impacting attitudes towards victims of misfortune.

K

M

Memory: The cognitive process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information over time.

Motivation: The psychological force that drives behavior toward a goal or desired outcome.

Mood: A pervasive and sustained emotional state that influences perception, cognition, and behavior.

Mental Health: The state of psychological well-being characterized by the absence of mental illness and the presence of positive functioning and coping abilities.

Mindfulness: The practice of intentionally focusing attention on the present moment with openness, curiosity, and acceptance.

Mental Illness: A clinically significant disturbance in thoughts, emotions, or behaviors that causes distress or impairment in functioning.

Meditation: A set of practices aimed at training attention and awareness, often involving techniques to achieve relaxation, concentration, and heightened consciousness.

Modeling: The process of observing and imitating the behavior, attitudes, or actions of others, often used in social learning theory.

Maturity: The state of being fully developed or grown, often referring to psychological, emotional, or cognitive development.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: A theory proposed by Abraham Maslow outlining a hierarchical structure of human needs, from basic physiological needs to higher-level needs for self-actualization and transcendence.

Major Depressive Disorder: A mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest or pleasure in activities, often accompanied by changes in sleep, appetite, and energy levels.

Memory Consolidation: The process by which newly acquired information is stabilized and integrated into long-term memory storage.

Mindset: A set of beliefs or assumptions about personal qualities, abilities, and potential, influencing motivation, resilience, and goal achievement.

Moral Development: The process of acquiring moral reasoning, values, and ethical principles, often studied in developmental psychology through the work of theorists like Lawrence Kohlberg.

Motive: An internal state or desire that energizes and directs behavior toward satisfying specific needs or achieving goals.

Mania: A state of elevated mood, energy, and activity levels characterized by euphoria, impulsivity, and decreased need for sleep, typically seen in bipolar disorder.

Mental Rotation: The cognitive ability to mentally manipulate and rotate visual images or objects in space, often used in spatial reasoning tasks.

Multitasking: The concurrent performance of multiple tasks or activities, often associated with divided attention and reduced efficiency.

Morality: A system of principles, values, and beliefs about right and wrong conduct, guiding ethical decision-making and behavior.

Misattribution: A cognitive bias or error in memory or perception where individuals attribute thoughts, feelings, or experiences to incorrect sources or causes.

Mental Health Stigma: Negative attitudes, stereotypes, or discrimination toward individuals with mental illness, leading to social exclusion, shame, and barriers to seeking help.

Memory Bias: A systematic distortion or alteration of memory processes that affects the encoding, storage, or retrieval of information, leading to inaccuracies or errors in recall.

Mental Health Assessment: A systematic evaluation of an individual’s psychological functioning, including cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aspects, often conducted by mental health professionals.

Memory Encoding: The process of converting sensory information into a form that can be stored and represented in memory.

Mind-Wandering: The spontaneous or involuntary shifting of attention away from the task at hand to unrelated thoughts, fantasies, or memories.

Mental Health Counseling: A therapeutic approach focused on addressing emotional, psychological, and interpersonal issues to promote mental well-being and improve coping skills.

Memory Retrieval: The process of accessing and recalling stored information from long-term memory storage for use in cognitive tasks or behaviors.

Memory Reconstruction: The process of piecing together and reconstructing past events or experiences based on partial or fragmentary information stored in memory.

Mental Flexibility: The cognitive ability to adapt and adjust thinking or behavior in response to changing situations, demands, or perspectives.

Mood Congruence: A phenomenon in which the content or quality of current mood influences the processing and recall of emotionally congruent information.

Moral Compass: A metaphorical representation of an individual’s internalized sense of right and wrong, guiding ethical decision-making and behavior.

Motivational Enhancement Therapy (MET): A counseling approach aimed at increasing an individual’s motivation to change problematic behaviors, often used in substance abuse treatment.

Mental Health Parity: The principle of equal insurance coverage for mental health services and treatments compared to physical health services, promoting equitable access to care.

Mood Disorder: A category of mental disorders characterized by disturbances in mood or affect, including depression, bipolar disorder, and cyclothymic disorder.

Memory Trace: A hypothetical neural representation or encoding of past experiences stored in the brain, forming the basis for memory formation and retrieval.

Microaggression: Subtle, often unintentional forms of discrimination or prejudice toward marginalized groups, manifesting in everyday interactions, language, or behavior.

Metacognition: The awareness and understanding of one’s own cognitive processes, including knowledge about when and how to use specific strategies for learning, problem-solving, and decision-making.

Mood Regulation: The process of modulating or managing one’s emotional state in response to internal or external stimuli, often involving cognitive, behavioral, and physiological strategies.

Mood Congruent Memory: A memory phenomenon where individuals are more likely to recall information that is consistent or congruent with their current mood or emotional state.

Memory Decay: The gradual fading or weakening of stored memory traces over time due to disuse or interference, leading to forgetting.

Mental Imagery: The mental representation or visualization of sensory information, often used in cognitive therapy, relaxation techniques, and sports psychology.

Mood Stabilizers: Psychotropic medications used to manage mood swings and stabilize emotions in conditions such as bipolar disorder.

Memory Consolidation: The process by which newly acquired information is stabilized and integrated into long-term memory storage.

Motivational Interviewing: A therapeutic approach focused on exploring and resolving ambivalence about change, often used in addiction treatment and health behavior change.

Mania: A state of elevated mood, energy, and activity levels characterized by euphoria, impulsivity, and decreased need for sleep, typically seen in bipolar disorder.

Mental Rotation: The cognitive ability to mentally manipulate and rotate visual images or objects in space, often used in spatial reasoning tasks.

Multitasking: The concurrent performance of multiple tasks or activities, often associated with divided attention and reduced efficiency.

Morality: A system of principles, values, and beliefs about right and wrong conduct, guiding ethical decision-making and behavior.

Misattribution: A cognitive bias or error in memory or perception where individuals attribute thoughts, feelings, or experiences to incorrect sources or causes.

Mental Health Stigma: Negative attitudes, stereotypes, or discrimination toward individuals with mental illness, leading to social exclusion, shame, and barriers to seeking help.

Mindset: A set of beliefs or assumptions about personal qualities, abilities, and potential, influencing motivation, resilience, and goal achievement.

Mood Congruence: A phenomenon in which the content or quality of current mood influences the processing and recall of emotionally congruent information.

Mental Flexibility: The cognitive ability to adapt and adjust thinking or behavior in response to changing situations, demands, or perspectives.

Mental Health Assessment: A systematic evaluation of an individual’s psychological functioning, including cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aspects, often conducted by mental health professionals.

Memory Bias: A systematic distortion or alteration of memory processes that affects the encoding, storage, or retrieval of information, leading to inaccuracies or errors in recall.

Memory Encoding: The process of converting sensory information into a form that can be stored and represented in memory.

Mind-Wandering: The spontaneous or involuntary shifting of attention away from the task at hand to unrelated thoughts, fantasies, or memories.

Mental Health Counseling: A therapeutic approach focused on addressing emotional, psychological, and interpersonal issues to promote mental well-being and improve coping skills.

Moral Development: The process of acquiring moral reasoning, values, and ethical principles, often studied in developmental psychology through the work of theorists like Lawrence Kohlberg.

Mental Health Parity: The principle of equal insurance coverage for mental health services and treatments compared to physical health services, promoting equitable access to care.

Memory Trace: A hypothetical neural representation or encoding of past experiences stored in the brain, forming the basis for memory formation and retrieval.

Microaggression: Subtle, often unintentional forms of discrimination or prejudice toward marginalized groups, manifesting in everyday interactions, language, or behavior.

Metacognition: The awareness and understanding of one’s own cognitive processes, including knowledge about when and how to use specific strategies for learning, problem-solving, and decision-making.

Mood Regulation: The process of modulating or managing one’s emotional state in response to internal or external stimuli, often involving cognitive, behavioral, and physiological strategies.

Mood Congruent Memory: A memory phenomenon where individuals are more likely to recall information that is consistent or congruent with their current mood or emotional state.

Memory Decay: The gradual fading or weakening of stored memory traces over time due to disuse or interference, leading to forgetting.

Mental Health Continuum: A conceptual model representing a spectrum of mental health states, ranging from optimal well-being to severe mental illness, with varying degrees of functioning and distress.

Mood Disorder: A category of mental disorders characterized by disturbances in mood or affect, including depression, bipolar disorder, and cyclothymic disorder.

Memory Consolidation: The process by which newly acquired information is stabilized and integrated into long-term memory storage.

Metacognitive Awareness: The ability to monitor and regulate one’s own cognitive processes, including planning, monitoring, and evaluating learning strategies and performance.

Motivational Enhancement Therapy (MET): A counseling approach aimed at increasing an individual’s motivation to change problematic behaviors, often used in substance abuse treatment.

Mental Health Parity: The principle of equal insurance coverage for mental health services and treatments compared to physical health services, promoting equitable access to care.

Memory Trace: A hypothetical neural representation or encoding of past experiences stored in the brain, forming the basis for memory formation and retrieval.

Metacognition: The awareness and understanding of one’s own cognitive processes, including knowledge about when and how to use specific strategies for learning, problem-solving, and decision-making.

Mood Regulation: The process of modulating or managing one’s emotional state in response to internal or external stimuli, often involving cognitive, behavioral, and physiological strategies.

Mood Congruent Memory: A memory phenomenon where individuals are more likely to recall information that is consistent or congruent with their current mood or emotional state.

Memory Decay: The gradual fading or weakening of stored memory traces over time due to disuse or interference, leading to forgetting.

Mental Health Continuum: A conceptual model representing a spectrum of mental health states, ranging from optimal well-being to severe mental illness, with varying degrees of functioning and distress.

Memory Bias: A systematic distortion or alteration of memory processes that affects the encoding, storage, or retrieval of information, leading to inaccuracies or errors in recall.

Metacognitive Awareness: The ability to monitor and regulate one’s own cognitive processes, including planning, monitoring, and evaluating learning strategies and performance.

Mood Regulation: The process of modulating or managing one’s emotional state in response to internal or external stimuli, often involving cognitive, behavioral, and physiological strategies.

Mental Health Continuum: A conceptual model representing a spectrum of mental health states, ranging from optimal well-being to severe mental illness, with varying degrees of functioning and distress.

Mood Disorder: A category of mental disorders characterized by disturbances in mood or affect, including depression, bipolar disorder, and cyclothymic disorder.

Memory Consolidation: The process by which newly acquired information is stabilized and integrated into long-term memory storage.

Microaggression: Subtle, often unintentional forms of discrimination or prejudice toward marginalized groups, manifesting in everyday interactions, language, or behavior.

Metacognition: The awareness and understanding of one’s own cognitive processes, including knowledge about when and how to use specific strategies for learning, problem-solving, and decision-making.

Mood Regulation: The process of modulating or managing one’s emotional state in response to internal or external stimuli, often involving cognitive, behavioral, and physiological strategies.

Memory Decay: The gradual fading or weakening of stored memory traces over time due to disuse or interference, leading to forgetting.

Mental Health Continuum: A conceptual model representing a spectrum of mental health states, ranging from optimal well-being to severe mental illness, with varying degrees of functioning and distress.

Mood Disorder: A category of mental disorders characterized by disturbances in mood or affect, including depression, bipolar disorder, and cyclothymic disorder.

Memory Consolidation: The process by which newly acquired information is stabilized and integrated into long-term memory storage.

Metacognition: The awareness and understanding of one’s own cognitive processes, including knowledge about when and how to use specific strategies for learning, problem-solving, and decision-making.

Mood Regulation: The process of modulating or managing one’s emotional state in response to internal or external stimuli, often involving cognitive, behavioral, and physiological strategies.

Mood Congruent Memory: A memory phenomenon where individuals are more likely to recall information that is consistent or congruent with their current mood or emotional state.

Memory Decay: The gradual fading or weakening of stored memory traces over time due to disuse or interference, leading to forgetting.

Mental Health Continuum: A conceptual model representing a spectrum of mental health states, ranging from optimal well-being to severe mental illness, with varying degrees of functioning and distress.

Mood Disorder: A category of mental disorders characterized by disturbances in mood or affect, including depression, bipolar disorder, and cyclothymic disorder.

Memory Consolidation: The process by which newly acquired information is stabilized and integrated into long-term memory storage.

Metacognition: The awareness and understanding of one’s own cognitive processes, including knowledge about when and how to use specific strategies for learning, problem-solving, and decision-making.

Mood Regulation: The process of modulating or managing one’s emotional state in response to internal or external stimuli, often involving cognitive, behavioral, and physiological strategies.

N

Neurotransmitter: Chemical substances released by neurons that transmit signals across synapses to target cells, influencing various physiological and psychological processes.

Neuroplasticity: The brain’s ability to reorganize its structure and function in response to experience, learning, injury, or environmental changes.

Narcissism: A personality trait characterized by grandiosity, a need for admiration, and a lack of empathy for others.

Negative Reinforcement: A form of operant conditioning where the removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus strengthens a behavior.

Nonverbal Communication: Communication expressed through facial expressions, body language, gestures, and other nonverbal cues.

Neuropsychology: The study of the relationship between brain function and behavior, often focusing on the assessment and rehabilitation of individuals with neurological disorders.

Normative Influence: Social influence resulting from conformity to group norms or expectations to gain acceptance or approval from others.

Need for Achievement (N-Ach): A psychological motive or drive to accomplish challenging tasks, set and achieve goals, and attain mastery in one’s endeavors.

Neuron: The basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system, specialized for transmitting electrical and chemical signals.

Norepinephrine: A neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of arousal, attention, stress response, and mood.

Nature vs. Nurture: The debate over the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) versus environmental influences (nurture) in shaping human behavior and development.

Normal Distribution: A bell-shaped frequency distribution where most scores cluster around the mean, reflecting the statistical concept of variability in a population.

Neurodevelopmental Disorder: A group of disorders characterized by impairments in neurological development, including autism spectrum disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and intellectual disabilities.

Neurocognitive Functioning: The cognitive processes and abilities associated with brain function, including attention, memory, language, and executive functioning.

Nominal Scale: A measurement scale used to categorize or classify data into distinct categories or groups without any inherent order or magnitude.

Neuroticism: One of the Big Five personality traits characterized by emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness, and a tendency to experience negative emotions.

Null Hypothesis: A statistical hypothesis stating that there is no significant difference or relationship between variables in a study, which serves as the default assumption to be tested against an alternative hypothesis.

Narrative Therapy: A therapeutic approach that emphasizes the importance of individuals’ personal narratives or stories in shaping their identity, beliefs, and behaviors.

Neuropsychological Assessment: The evaluation of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral functioning based on standardized tests and measures, often used in diagnosing neurological disorders or brain injuries.

Norm-referenced Test: A psychological assessment tool designed to compare an individual’s performance to that of a normative sample, providing information about their relative standing within a population.

Neglect: A form of child maltreatment characterized by failure to provide adequate care, supervision, or support for a child’s physical, emotional, or developmental needs.

Negative Symptoms: Symptoms of schizophrenia or other psychotic disorders characterized by deficits or absence of normal behaviors or functions, such as flattened affect, social withdrawal, and anhedonia.

Neurofeedback: A therapeutic technique that uses real-time feedback of brain activity to teach individuals how to self-regulate and modify their brainwave patterns, often used in treating conditions like ADHD and anxiety.

Need for Affiliation (N-Affil): A psychological motive or drive to seek social connections, acceptance, and belongingness with others.

Neuropsychiatric Disorder: A disorder affecting both neurological and psychiatric functioning, such as epilepsy, traumatic brain injury, or neurodevelopmental disorders.

Naturalistic Observation: A research method involving systematic observation of behavior in its natural environment without intervention or manipulation by the researcher.

Nonassociative Learning: A type of learning that involves changes in behavior or responses to a single stimulus without the association of multiple stimuli, such as habituation and sensitization.

Neurotransmission: The process of transmitting chemical signals (neurotransmitters) across synapses between neurons, facilitating communication within the nervous system.

Neophobia: A fear or aversion to new or unfamiliar stimuli, situations, or experiences, often observed in children and animals.

Neurofeedback: A therapeutic technique that uses real-time feedback of brain activity to teach individuals how to self-regulate and modify their brainwave patterns, often used in treating conditions like ADHD and anxiety.

Need for Affiliation (N-Affil): A psychological motive or drive to seek social connections, acceptance, and belongingness with others.

Neuropsychiatric Disorder: A disorder affecting both neurological and psychiatric functioning, such as epilepsy, traumatic brain injury, or neurodevelopmental disorders.

Naturalistic Observation: A research method involving systematic observation of behavior in its natural environment without intervention or manipulation by the researcher.

Nonassociative Learning: A type of learning that involves changes in behavior or responses to a single stimulus without the association of multiple stimuli, such as habituation and sensitization.

Neurotransmission: The process of transmitting chemical signals (neurotransmitters) across synapses between neurons, facilitating communication within the nervous system.

Neophobia: A fear or aversion to new or unfamiliar stimuli, situations, or experiences, often observed in children and animals.

Narcissistic Personality Disorder: A personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy for others, often accompanied by fantasies of unlimited success, power, or beauty.

Night Terrors: A sleep disorder characterized by sudden awakening from sleep with intense fear, agitation, or panic, often accompanied by screaming, thrashing, or other autonomic arousal symptoms.

Neuroticism: One of the Big Five personality traits characterized by emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness, and a tendency to experience negative emotions.

Null Hypothesis: A statistical hypothesis stating that there is no significant difference or relationship between variables in a study, which serves as the default assumption to be tested against an alternative hypothesis.

Norm-referenced Test: A psychological assessment tool designed to compare an individual’s performance to that of a normative sample, providing information about their relative standing within a population.

Neurocognitive Functioning: The cognitive processes and abilities associated with brain function, including attention, memory, language, and executive functioning.

Nominal Scale: A measurement scale used to categorize or classify data into distinct categories or groups without any inherent order or magnitude.

Neurodevelopmental Disorder: A group of disorders characterized by impairments in neurological development, including autism spectrum disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and intellectual disabilities.

Narcissistic Personality Disorder: A personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy for others, often accompanied by fantasies of unlimited success, power, or beauty.

Night Terrors: A sleep disorder characterized by sudden awakening from sleep with intense fear, agitation, or panic, often accompanied by screaming, thrashing, or other autonomic arousal symptoms.

Nomophobia: The fear or anxiety of being without one’s mobile phone or being unable to use it, often associated with feelings of isolation, insecurity, or dependence.

Neuroimaging: The use of various techniques, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), to visualize and study the structure and function of the brain.

Neuroticism: One of the Big Five personality traits characterized by emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness, and a tendency to experience negative emotions.

Negative Reinforcement: A form of operant conditioning where the removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus strengthens a behavior.

Nonverbal Communication: Communication expressed through facial expressions, body language, gestures, and other nonverbal cues.

Neuropsychology: The study of the relationship between brain function and behavior, often focusing on the assessment and rehabilitation of individuals with neurological disorders.

Need for Achievement (N-Ach): A psychological motive or drive to accomplish challenging tasks, set and achieve goals, and attain mastery in one’s endeavors.

Neuron: The basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system, specialized for transmitting electrical and chemical signals.

Neurotransmitter: Chemical substances released by neurons that transmit signals across synapses to target cells, influencing various physiological and psychological processes.

Neuroplasticity: The brain’s ability to reorganize its structure and function in response to experience, learning, injury, or environmental changes.

Negative Reinforcement: A form of operant conditioning where the removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus strengthens a behavior.

Nonverbal Communication: Communication expressed through facial expressions, body language, gestures, and other nonverbal cues.

Neuropsychology: The study of the relationship between brain function and behavior, often focusing on the assessment and rehabilitation of individuals with neurological disorders.

Normative Influence: Social influence resulting from conformity to group norms or expectations to gain acceptance or approval from others.

Need for Achievement (N-Ach): A psychological motive or drive to accomplish challenging tasks, set and achieve goals, and attain mastery in one’s endeavors.

Neuron: The basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system, specialized for transmitting electrical and chemical signals.

Neurotransmitter: Chemical substances released by neurons that transmit signals across synapses to target cells, influencing various physiological and psychological processes.

Neuroplasticity: The brain’s ability to reorganize its structure and function in response to experience, learning, injury, or environmental changes.

Narcissism: A personality trait characterized by grandiosity, a need for admiration, and a lack of empathy for others.

Negative Reinforcement: A form of operant conditioning where the removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus strengthens a behavior.

Nonverbal Communication: Communication expressed through facial expressions, body language, gestures, and other nonverbal cues.

Neuropsychology: The study of the relationship between brain function and behavior, often focusing on the assessment and rehabilitation of individuals with neurological disorders.

Normative Influence: Social influence resulting from conformity to group norms or expectations to gain acceptance or approval from others.

Nomothetic Approach: A research approach that focuses on identifying general principles, laws, or patterns that apply to groups or populations, emphasizing similarities rather than individual differences.

Negative Feedback: Feedback that provides information indicating a deviation from a desired goal or standard, prompting corrective actions or adjustments to behavior.

Narcissistic Personality Disorder: A personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy for others, often accompanied by fantasies of unlimited success, power, or beauty.

Neuroticism: One of the Big Five personality traits characterized by emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness, and a tendency to experience negative emotions.

Nonverbal Communication: Communication expressed through facial expressions, body language, gestures, and other nonverbal cues.

Neuropsychology: The study of the relationship between brain function and behavior, often focusing on the assessment and rehabilitation of individuals with neurological disorders.

Nomothetic Approach: A research approach that focuses on identifying general principles, laws, or patterns that apply to groups or populations, emphasizing similarities rather than individual differences.

Negative Feedback: Feedback that provides information indicating a deviation from a desired goal or standard, prompting corrective actions or adjustments to behavior.

Nomophobia: The fear or anxiety of being without one’s mobile phone or being unable to use it, often associated with feelings of isolation, insecurity, or dependence.

Neuroimaging: The use of various techniques, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), to visualize and study the structure and function of the brain.

Nonassociative Learning: A type of learning that involves changes in behavior or responses to a single stimulus without the association of multiple stimuli, such as habituation and sensitization.

Neophobia: A fear or aversion to new or unfamiliar stimuli, situations, or experiences, often observed in children and animals.

Nominal Scale: A measurement scale used to categorize or classify data into distinct categories or groups without any inherent order or magnitude.

Neurotransmission: The process of transmitting chemical signals (neurotransmitters) across synapses between neurons, facilitating communication within the nervous system.

Need for Cognition: A psychological trait reflecting the extent to which individuals are inclined toward engaging in effortful cognitive activities, such as thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making.

Negative Priming: A phenomenon in which prior exposure to a stimulus interferes with or inhibits the processing of that stimulus when it is presented again, often observed in selective attention tasks.

Neuropsychological Assessment: The evaluation of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral functioning based on standardized tests and measures, often used in diagnosing neurological disorders or brain injuries.

Neurotransmitter: Chemical substances released by neurons that transmit signals across synapses to target cells, influencing various physiological and psychological processes.

Neuroplasticity: The brain’s ability to reorganize its structure and function in response to experience, learning, injury, or environmental changes.

Narcissism: A personality trait characterized by grandiosity, a need for admiration, and a lack of empathy for others.

Normative Influence: Social influence resulting from conformity to group norms or expectations to gain acceptance or approval from others.

Neurocognitive Functioning: The cognitive processes and abilities associated with brain function, including attention, memory, language, and executive functioning.

Norm-referenced Test: A psychological assessment tool designed to compare an individual’s performance to that of a normative sample, providing information about their relative standing within a population.

Neurofeedback: A therapeutic technique that uses real-time feedback of brain activity to teach individuals how to self-regulate and modify their brainwave patterns, often used in treating conditions like ADHD and anxiety.

Need for Affiliation (N-Affil): A psychological motive or drive to seek social connections, acceptance, and belongingness with others.

Neuropsychiatric Disorder: A disorder affecting both neurological and psychiatric functioning, such as epilepsy, traumatic brain injury, or neurodevelopmental disorders.

Night Terrors: A sleep disorder characterized by sudden awakening from sleep with intense fear, agitation, or panic, often accompanied by screaming, thrashing, or other autonomic arousal symptoms.

Nomophobia: The fear or anxiety of being without one’s mobile phone or being unable to use it, often associated with feelings of isolation, insecurity, or dependence.

Nonassociative Learning: A type of learning that involves changes in behavior or responses to a single stimulus without the association of multiple stimuli, such as habituation and sensitization.

Neuroimaging: The use of various techniques, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), to visualize and study the structure and function of the brain.

Neurodevelopmental Disorder: A group of disorders characterized by impairments in neurological development, including autism spectrum disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and intellectual disabilities.

O

Operant Conditioning: A learning process that involves the modification of behavior through the use of consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): A mental health disorder characterized by intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or rituals (compulsions) aimed at reducing anxiety or distress.

Oedipus Complex: In psychoanalytic theory, a child’s unconscious desire for the opposite-sex parent, accompanied by feelings of rivalry or hostility toward the same-sex parent.

Object Permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight, a concept studied in developmental psychology, particularly in infancy.

Optimism: A psychological disposition characterized by a positive outlook, hopeful expectations, and a belief in favorable outcomes, even in the face of adversity.

Outgroup: A social group to which an individual does not belong, often perceived as different or separate from one’s own ingroup.

Overlearning: The process of continued practice or repetition of a skill or information beyond the point of initial mastery, enhancing retention and resistance to forgetting.

Overjustification Effect: A phenomenon in which the introduction of extrinsic rewards for intrinsically motivated behavior diminishes the intrinsic motivation to engage in that behavior.

Openness to Experience: One of the Big Five personality traits characterized by a preference for novelty, curiosity, imagination, and a willingness to explore new ideas and experiences.

Objectification: The perception or treatment of a person as an object or commodity, often focusing on physical appearance and disregarding their subjective thoughts, feelings, or autonomy.

Overgeneralization: A cognitive distortion or bias in which specific instances or experiences are generalized to broader categories, leading to overbroad conclusions or beliefs.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): A mental health disorder characterized by intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or rituals (compulsions) aimed at reducing anxiety or distress.

Operant Conditioning: A learning process that involves the modification of behavior through the use of consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.

Object Permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight, a concept studied in developmental psychology, particularly in infancy.

Optimism: A psychological disposition characterized by a positive outlook, hopeful expectations, and a belief in favorable outcomes, even in the face of adversity.

Overlearning: The process of continued practice or repetition of a skill or information beyond the point of initial mastery, enhancing retention and resistance to forgetting.

Overjustification Effect: A phenomenon in which the introduction of extrinsic rewards for intrinsically motivated behavior diminishes the intrinsic motivation to engage in that behavior.

Openness to Experience: One of the Big Five personality traits characterized by a preference for novelty, curiosity, imagination, and a willingness to explore new ideas and experiences.

Outgroup: A social group to which an individual does not belong, often perceived as different or separate from one’s own ingroup.

Objectification: The perception or treatment of a person as an object or commodity, often focusing on physical appearance and disregarding their subjective thoughts, feelings, or autonomy.

Overgeneralization: A cognitive distortion or bias in which specific instances or experiences are generalized to broader categories, leading to overbroad conclusions or beliefs.

Operant Conditioning: A learning process that involves the modification of behavior through the use of consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): A mental health disorder characterized by intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or rituals (compulsions) aimed at reducing anxiety or distress.

Object Permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight, a concept studied in developmental psychology, particularly in infancy.

Optimism: A psychological disposition characterized by a positive outlook, hopeful expectations, and a belief in favorable outcomes, even in the face of adversity.

Overlearning: The process of continued practice or repetition of a skill or information beyond the point of initial mastery, enhancing retention and resistance to forgetting.

Overjustification Effect: A phenomenon in which the introduction of extrinsic rewards for intrinsically motivated behavior diminishes the intrinsic motivation to engage in that behavior.

Openness to Experience: One of the Big Five personality traits characterized by a preference for novelty, curiosity, imagination, and a willingness to explore new ideas and experiences.

Outgroup: A social group to which an individual does not belong, often perceived as different or separate from one’s own ingroup.

Objectification: The perception or treatment of a person as an object or commodity, often focusing on physical appearance and disregarding their subjective thoughts, feelings, or autonomy.

Overgeneralization: A cognitive distortion or bias in which specific instances or experiences are generalized to broader categories, leading to overbroad conclusions or beliefs.

Overjustification Effect: A phenomenon in which the introduction of extrinsic rewards for intrinsically motivated behavior diminishes the intrinsic motivation to engage in that behavior.

Objectification: The perception or treatment of a person as an object or commodity, often focusing on physical appearance and disregarding their subjective thoughts, feelings, or autonomy.

Operant Conditioning: A learning process that involves the modification of behavior through the use of consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.

Optimism: A psychological disposition characterized by a positive outlook, hopeful expectations, and a belief in favorable outcomes, even in the face of adversity.

Openness to Experience: One of the Big Five personality traits characterized by a preference for novelty, curiosity, imagination, and a willingness to explore new ideas and experiences.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): A mental health disorder characterized by intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or rituals (compulsions) aimed at reducing anxiety or distress.

Overlearning: The process of continued practice or repetition of a skill or information beyond the point of initial mastery, enhancing retention and resistance to forgetting.

Object Permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight, a concept studied in developmental psychology, particularly in infancy.

Overjustification Effect: A phenomenon in which the introduction of extrinsic rewards for intrinsically motivated behavior diminishes the intrinsic motivation to engage in that behavior.

Operant Conditioning: A learning process that involves the modification of behavior through the use of consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): A mental health disorder characterized by intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or rituals (compulsions) aimed at reducing anxiety or distress.

Object Permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight, a concept studied in developmental psychology, particularly in infancy.

Optimism: A psychological disposition characterized by a positive outlook, hopeful expectations, and a belief in favorable outcomes, even in the face of adversity.

Overlearning: The process of continued practice or repetition of a skill or information beyond the point of initial mastery, enhancing retention and resistance to forgetting.

Openness to Experience: One of the Big Five personality traits characterized by a preference for novelty, curiosity, imagination, and a willingness to explore new ideas and experiences.

Outgroup: A social group to which an individual does not belong, often perceived as different or separate from one’s own ingroup.

Overgeneralization: A cognitive distortion or bias in which specific instances or experiences are generalized to broader categories, leading to overbroad conclusions or beliefs.

Objectification: The perception or treatment of a person as an object or commodity, often focusing on physical appearance and disregarding their subjective thoughts, feelings, or autonomy.

Overjustification Effect: A phenomenon in which the introduction of extrinsic rewards for intrinsically motivated behavior diminishes the intrinsic motivation to engage in that behavior.

Operant Conditioning: A learning process that involves the modification of behavior through the use of consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): A mental health disorder characterized by intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or rituals (compulsions) aimed at reducing anxiety or distress.

Object Permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight, a concept studied in developmental psychology, particularly in infancy.

Optimism: A psychological disposition characterized by a positive outlook, hopeful expectations, and a belief in favorable outcomes, even in the face of adversity.

Overlearning: The process of continued practice or repetition of a skill or information beyond the point of initial mastery, enhancing retention and resistance to forgetting.

Openness to Experience: One of the Big Five personality traits characterized by a preference for novelty, curiosity, imagination, and a willingness to explore new ideas and experiences.

Outgroup: A social group to which an individual does not belong, often perceived as different or separate from one’s own ingroup.

Overgeneralization: A cognitive distortion or bias in which specific instances or experiences are generalized to broader categories, leading to overbroad conclusions or beliefs.

Overjustification Effect: A phenomenon in which the introduction of extrinsic rewards for intrinsically motivated behavior diminishes the intrinsic motivation to engage in that behavior.

Objectification: The perception or treatment of a person as an object or commodity, often focusing on physical appearance and disregarding their subjective thoughts, feelings, or autonomy.

Operant Conditioning: A learning process that involves the modification of behavior through the use of consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): A mental health disorder characterized by intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or rituals (compulsions) aimed at reducing anxiety or distress.

Object Permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight, a concept studied in developmental psychology, particularly in infancy.

Optimism: A psychological disposition characterized by a positive outlook, hopeful expectations, and a belief in favorable outcomes, even in the face of adversity.

Overlearning: The process of continued practice or repetition of a skill or information beyond the point of initial mastery, enhancing retention and resistance to forgetting.

Openness to Experience: One of the Big Five personality traits characterized by a preference for novelty, curiosity, imagination, and a willingness to explore new ideas and experiences.

Outgroup: A social group to which an individual does not belong, often perceived as different or separate from one’s own ingroup.

Overgeneralization: A cognitive distortion or bias in which specific instances or experiences are generalized to broader categories, leading to overbroad conclusions or beliefs.

Overjustification Effect: A phenomenon in which the introduction of extrinsic rewards for intrinsically motivated behavior diminishes the intrinsic motivation to engage in that behavior.

Objectification: The perception or treatment of a person as an object or commodity, often focusing on physical appearance and disregarding their subjective thoughts, feelings, or autonomy.

Operant Conditioning: A learning process that involves the modification of behavior through the use of consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): A mental health disorder characterized by intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or rituals (compulsions) aimed at reducing anxiety or distress.

Object Permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight, a concept studied in developmental psychology, particularly in infancy.

Optimism: A psychological disposition characterized by a positive outlook, hopeful expectations, and a belief in favorable outcomes, even in the face of adversity.

Overlearning: The process of continued practice or repetition of a skill or information beyond the point of initial mastery, enhancing retention and resistance to forgetting.

Openness to Experience: One of the Big Five personality traits characterized by a preference for novelty, curiosity, imagination, and a willingness to explore new ideas and experiences.

Outgroup: A social group to which an individual does not belong, often perceived as different or separate from one’s own ingroup.

Overgeneralization: A cognitive distortion or bias in which specific instances or experiences are generalized to broader categories, leading to overbroad conclusions or beliefs.

Objectification: The perception or treatment of a person as an object or commodity, often focusing on physical appearance and disregarding their subjective thoughts, feelings, or autonomy.

Overjustification Effect: A phenomenon in which the introduction of extrinsic rewards for intrinsically motivated behavior diminishes the intrinsic motivation to engage in that behavior.

Operant Conditioning: A learning process that involves the modification of behavior through the use of consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): A mental health disorder characterized by intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or rituals (compulsions) aimed at reducing anxiety or distress.

Object Permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight, a concept studied in developmental psychology, particularly in infancy.

Optimism: A psychological disposition characterized by a positive outlook, hopeful expectations, and a belief in favorable outcomes, even in the face of adversity.

Overlearning: The process of continued practice or repetition of a skill or information beyond the point of initial mastery, enhancing retention and resistance to forgetting.

Openness to Experience: One of the Big Five personality traits characterized by a preference for novelty, curiosity, imagination, and a willingness to explore new ideas and experiences.

Outgroup: A social group to which an individual does not belong, often perceived as different or separate from one’s own ingroup.

Overgeneralization: A cognitive distortion or bias in which specific instances or experiences are generalized to broader categories, leading to overbroad conclusions or beliefs.

Objectification: The perception or treatment of a person as an object or commodity, often focusing on physical appearance and disregarding their subjective thoughts, feelings, or autonomy.

Overjustification Effect: A phenomenon in which the introduction of extrinsic rewards for intrinsically motivated behavior diminishes the intrinsic motivation to engage in that behavior.

Operant Conditioning: A learning process that involves the modification of behavior through the use of consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): A mental health disorder characterized by intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or rituals (compulsions) aimed at reducing anxiety or distress.

Object Permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight, a concept studied in developmental psychology, particularly in infancy.

Optimism: A psychological disposition characterized by a positive outlook, hopeful expectations, and a belief in favorable outcomes, even in the face of adversity.

Overlearning: The process of continued practice or repetition of a skill or information beyond the point of initial mastery, enhancing retention and resistance to forgetting.

Openness to Experience: One of the Big Five personality traits characterized by a preference for novelty, curiosity, imagination, and a willingness to explore new ideas and experiences.

Outgroup: A social group to which an individual does not belong, often perceived as different or separate from one’s own ingroup.

Overgeneralization: A cognitive distortion or bias in which specific instances or experiences are generalized to broader categories, leading to overbroad conclusions or beliefs.

Objectification: The perception or treatment of a person as an object or commodity, often focusing on physical appearance and disregarding their subjective thoughts, feelings, or autonomy.

Overjustification Effect: A phenomenon in which the introduction of extrinsic rewards for intrinsically motivated behavior diminishes the intrinsic motivation to engage in that behavior.

P

Psychopathology: The study of mental disorders, their causes, symptoms, and treatments.

Personality: An individual’s characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that persist over time and across different situations.

Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to understand the environment.

Prejudice: Negative attitudes, beliefs, or stereotypes about members of a particular social group, often leading to discrimination or bias.

Psychodynamic Theory: A psychological perspective that emphasizes the role of unconscious processes and childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior.

Psychosis: A severe mental disorder characterized by a loss of contact with reality, including hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking.

Phobia: An intense and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity, often leading to avoidance behaviors.

Procrastination: The tendency to delay or postpone tasks or responsibilities, often resulting in negative consequences or stress.

Psychotherapy: The treatment of mental health disorders or emotional difficulties through verbal communication between a therapist and a client, aimed at improving well-being and functioning.

Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to understand the environment.

Psychopathology: The study of mental disorders, their causes, symptoms, and treatments.

Personality: An individual’s characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that persist over time and across different situations.

Prejudice: Negative attitudes, beliefs, or stereotypes about members of a particular social group, often leading to discrimination or bias.

Psychodynamic Theory: A psychological perspective that emphasizes the role of unconscious processes and childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior.

Psychosis: A severe mental disorder characterized by a loss of contact with reality, including hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking.

Phobia: An intense and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity, often leading to avoidance behaviors.

Psychotherapy: The treatment of mental health disorders or emotional difficulties through verbal communication between a therapist and a client, aimed at improving well-being and functioning.

Positive Psychology: A branch of psychology that focuses on the study of human strengths, virtues, and well-being, emphasizing factors that contribute to a fulfilling and meaningful life.

Pavlovian Conditioning: A form of classical conditioning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a reflexive response through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus.

Paranoia: A persistent and irrational belief or suspicion that others are plotting against, persecuting, or intending harm, often associated with mental disorders such as schizophrenia or paranoia.

Psychoanalysis: A therapeutic approach developed by Sigmund Freud that aims to uncover unconscious conflicts and desires by exploring past experiences, dreams, and free associations.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): A mental health disorder characterized by recurrent and intrusive memories, nightmares, flashbacks, and hypervigilance following exposure to a traumatic event.

Panic Disorder: A type of anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent and unexpected panic attacks, accompanied by intense fear and physical symptoms such as palpitations, sweating, and shortness of breath.

Psychosomatic: Referring to physical symptoms or illnesses that are influenced or caused by psychological factors, such as stress, emotions, or mental health disorders.

Peer Pressure: Social influence exerted by peers or members of one’s social group to conform to their attitudes, behaviors, or norms.

Projection: A defense mechanism in which individuals attribute their own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or impulses to others, avoiding awareness of their own undesirable qualities.

Positive Reinforcement: A form of operant conditioning where the presentation of a rewarding stimulus strengthens a behavior, increasing the likelihood of its occurrence.

Personality Disorder: A mental health disorder characterized by rigid and maladaptive patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that deviate from cultural norms and cause impairment in social or occupational functioning.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development: A developmental theory proposed by Jean Piaget, emphasizing qualitative changes in cognitive abilities as children progress through four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Panic Disorder: A type of anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent and unexpected panic attacks, accompanied by intense fear and physical symptoms such as palpitations, sweating, and shortness of breath.

Psychosomatic: Referring to physical symptoms or illnesses that are influenced or caused by psychological factors, such as stress, emotions, or mental health disorders.

Peer Pressure: Social influence exerted by peers or members of one’s social group to conform to their attitudes, behaviors, or norms.

Projection: A defense mechanism in which individuals attribute their own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or impulses to others, avoiding awareness of their own undesirable qualities.

Positive Reinforcement: A form of operant conditioning where the presentation of a rewarding stimulus strengthens a behavior, increasing the likelihood of its occurrence.

Personality Disorder: A mental health disorder characterized by rigid and maladaptive patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that deviate from cultural norms and cause impairment in social or occupational functioning.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development: A developmental theory proposed by Jean Piaget, emphasizing qualitative changes in cognitive abilities as children progress through four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Psychopathy: A personality disorder characterized by antisocial behavior, lack of empathy or remorse, manipulative tendencies, and superficial charm, often associated with criminal or violent behavior.

Peer Review: The process of evaluation and critique by experts in the same field to assess the quality, validity, and significance of research studies or academic papers before publication.

Projective Test: A psychological assessment tool used to uncover unconscious thoughts, feelings, and conflicts by presenting ambiguous stimuli for individuals to interpret, such as the Rorschach inkblot test or the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

Positive Psychology: A branch of psychology that focuses on the study of human strengths, virtues, and well-being, emphasizing factors that contribute to a fulfilling and meaningful life.

Pavlovian Conditioning: A form of classical conditioning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a reflexive response through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus.

Paranoia: A persistent and irrational belief or suspicion that others are plotting against, persecuting, or intending harm, often associated with mental disorders such as schizophrenia or paranoia.

Psychoanalysis: A therapeutic approach developed by Sigmund Freud that aims to uncover unconscious conflicts and desires by exploring past experiences, dreams, and free associations.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): A mental health disorder characterized by recurrent and intrusive memories, nightmares, flashbacks, and hypervigilance following exposure to a traumatic event.

Panic Disorder: A type of anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent and unexpected panic attacks, accompanied by intense fear and physical symptoms such as palpitations, sweating, and shortness of breath.

Psychosomatic: Referring to physical symptoms or illnesses that are influenced or caused by psychological factors, such as stress, emotions, or mental health disorders.

Peer Pressure: Social influence exerted by peers or members of one’s social group to conform to their attitudes, behaviors, or norms.

Projection: A defense mechanism in which individuals attribute their own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or impulses to others, avoiding awareness of their own undesirable qualities.

Positive Reinforcement: A form of operant conditioning where the presentation of a rewarding stimulus strengthens a behavior, increasing the likelihood of its occurrence.

Personality Disorder: A mental health disorder characterized by rigid and maladaptive patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that deviate from cultural norms and cause impairment in social or occupational functioning.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development: A developmental theory proposed by Jean Piaget, emphasizing qualitative changes in cognitive abilities as children progress through four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Psychopathy: A personality disorder characterized by antisocial behavior, lack of empathy or remorse, manipulative tendencies, and superficial charm, often associated with criminal or violent behavior.

Peer Review: The process of evaluation and critique by experts in the same field to assess the quality, validity, and significance of research studies or academic papers before publication.

Projective Test: A psychological assessment tool used to uncover unconscious thoughts, feelings, and conflicts by presenting ambiguous stimuli for individuals to interpret, such as the Rorschach inkblot test or the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

Positive Reinforcement: A form of operant conditioning where the presentation of a rewarding stimulus strengthens a behavior, increasing the likelihood of its occurrence.

Personality Disorder: A mental health disorder characterized by rigid and maladaptive patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that deviate from cultural norms and cause impairment in social or occupational functioning.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development: A developmental theory proposed by Jean Piaget, emphasizing qualitative changes in cognitive abilities as children progress through four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Psychopathy: A personality disorder characterized by antisocial behavior, lack of empathy or remorse, manipulative tendencies, and superficial charm, often associated with criminal or violent behavior.

Peer Review: The process of evaluation and critique by experts in the same field to assess the quality, validity, and significance of research studies or academic papers before publication.

Projective Test: A psychological assessment tool used to uncover unconscious thoughts, feelings, and conflicts by presenting ambiguous stimuli for individuals to interpret, such as the Rorschach inkblot test or the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

Personality Disorder: A mental health disorder characterized by rigid and maladaptive patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that deviate from cultural norms and cause impairment in social or occupational functioning.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development: A developmental theory proposed by Jean Piaget, emphasizing qualitative changes in cognitive abilities as children progress through four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Psychopathy: A personality disorder characterized by antisocial behavior, lack of empathy or remorse, manipulative tendencies, and superficial charm, often associated with criminal or violent behavior.

Peer Review: The process of evaluation and critique by experts in the same field to assess the quality, validity, and significance of research studies or academic papers before publication.

Projective Test: A psychological assessment tool used to uncover unconscious thoughts, feelings, and conflicts by presenting ambiguous stimuli for individuals to interpret, such as the Rorschach inkblot test or the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

Psychotherapy: The treatment of mental health disorders or emotional difficulties through verbal communication between a therapist and a client, aimed at improving well-being and functioning.

Phobia: An intense and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity, often leading to avoidance behaviors.

Psychosis: A severe mental disorder characterized by a loss of contact with reality, including hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking.

Psychodynamic Theory: A psychological perspective that emphasizes the role of unconscious processes and childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior.

Prejudice: Negative attitudes, beliefs, or stereotypes about members of a particular social group, often leading to discrimination or bias.

Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to understand the environment.

Personality: An individual’s characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that persist over time and across different situations.

Psychopathology: The study of mental disorders, their causes, symptoms, and treatments.

Psychotherapy: The treatment of mental health disorders or emotional difficulties through verbal communication between a therapist and a client, aimed at improving well-being and functioning.

Phobia: An intense and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity, often leading to avoidance behaviors.

Psychosis: A severe mental disorder characterized by a loss of contact with reality, including hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking.

Psychodynamic Theory: A psychological perspective that emphasizes the role of unconscious processes and childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior.

Prejudice: Negative attitudes, beliefs, or stereotypes about members of a particular social group, often leading to discrimination or bias.

Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to understand the environment.

Personality: An individual’s characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that persist over time and across different situations.

Psychopathology: The study of mental disorders, their causes, symptoms, and treatments.

Psychotherapy: The treatment of mental health disorders or emotional difficulties through verbal communication between a therapist and a client, aimed at improving well-being and functioning.

Phobia: An intense and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity, often leading to avoidance behaviors.

Psychosis: A severe mental disorder characterized by a loss of contact with reality, including hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking.

Psychodynamic Theory: A psychological perspective that emphasizes the role of unconscious processes and childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior.

Prejudice: Negative attitudes, beliefs, or stereotypes about members of a particular social group, often leading to discrimination or bias.

Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to understand the environment.

Personality: An individual’s characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that persist over time and across different situations.

Psychopathology: The study of mental disorders, their causes, symptoms, and treatments.

Psychotherapy: The treatment of mental health disorders or emotional difficulties through verbal communication between a therapist and a client, aimed at improving well-being and functioning.

Phobia: An intense and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity, often leading to avoidance behaviors.

Psychosis: A severe mental disorder characterized by a loss of contact with reality, including hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking.

Psychodynamic Theory: A psychological perspective that emphasizes the role of unconscious processes and childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior.

Prejudice: Negative attitudes, beliefs, or stereotypes about members of a particular social group, often leading to discrimination or bias.

Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to understand the environment.

Personality: An individual’s characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that persist over time and across different situations.

Psychopathology: The study of mental disorders, their causes, symptoms, and treatments.

Psychotherapy: The treatment of mental health disorders or emotional difficulties through verbal communication between a therapist and a client, aimed at improving well-being and functioning.

Phobia: An intense and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity, often leading to avoidance behaviors.

Psychosis: A severe mental disorder characterized by a loss of contact with reality, including hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking.